Avian Malaria in Hawaiian Birds: Difference between revisions

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==Plasmodium==
==Plasmodium==
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While malaria is most commonly thought of in terms of the few species that infect humans, there are several hundreds of haemosporidian parasites that infect a variety of vertebrate hosts <ref>[https://www.caister.com/malariaMartinsen and Perkins 2013.The Diversity of Plasmodium and other Haemosporidians: The Intersections of Taxonomy, Phylogenetics, and Genomics. In: Carlton, J., Perkins, S., Deitsch, editors. Malaria Parasites: Comparative Genomics, Evolution and Molecular Biology. Norfolk: Caister Academic Press. p 1- 15.  
While malaria is most commonly thought of in terms of the few species that infect humans, there are several hundreds of haemosporidian parasites that infect a variety of vertebrate hosts <ref>[https://www.caister.com/malaria Martinsen and Perkins 2013. The Diversity of Plasmodium and other Haemosporidians: The Intersections of Taxonomy, Phylogenetics, and Genomics. In: Carlton, J., Perkins, S., Deitsch, editors. Malaria Parasites: Comparative Genomics, Evolution and Molecular Biology. Norfolk: Caister Academic Press. p 1- 15.  
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<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3847443/ Bartlett et al.: Oncolytic viruses as therapeutic cancer vaccines. Molecular Cancer 2013 12:103.]</ref>(Martinsen and Perkins 2013).


These parasites are commonly split into five genera: Plasmodium, Hepatocystis, Haemoproteus, Parahaemoproteus, and Leucocoytozoon (Martinsen and Perkins 2013).  Of these genera, species within the Leucocytozoon, Parahaemorptoeus, and Plasmodium genera have been found to infect avian species (Martinsen and Perkins 2013).  Of these, Plasmodium relictum has been devastating the native birds on the island of Hawaii (LaPointe et al 2012).   
These parasites are commonly split into five genera: Plasmodium, Hepatocystis, Haemoproteus, Parahaemoproteus, and Leucocoytozoon (Martinsen and Perkins 2013).  Of these genera, species within the Leucocytozoon, Parahaemorptoeus, and Plasmodium genera have been found to infect avian species (Martinsen and Perkins 2013).  Of these, Plasmodium relictum has been devastating the native birds on the island of Hawaii (LaPointe et al 2012).   

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Plasmodium


While malaria is most commonly thought of in terms of the few species that infect humans, there are several hundreds of haemosporidian parasites that infect a variety of vertebrate hosts [1]

These parasites are commonly split into five genera: Plasmodium, Hepatocystis, Haemoproteus, Parahaemoproteus, and Leucocoytozoon (Martinsen and Perkins 2013). Of these genera, species within the Leucocytozoon, Parahaemorptoeus, and Plasmodium genera have been found to infect avian species (Martinsen and Perkins 2013). Of these, Plasmodium relictum has been devastating the native birds on the island of Hawaii (LaPointe et al 2012).

Common symptoms in birds with malaria: A: Low hematocrit count, B: Lesions in liver, C: Parasitized red blood cells. By LaPointe, et al. [2]


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The native population of Hawaiian birds has recently been devastated by avian malaria. Avian malaria is caused by Plasmodium relictum, a protozoan that is in the same genus as those that infect humans. P. relictum reproduces in the red blood cells of birds, leading to anemia and death. Like the human form of malaria, avian malaria is spread through mosquitos. Unlike other ecosystems, mosquitos were not introduced to Hawaii until 1826, putting the birds at a high risk for mosquito borne diseases such as malaria. Research is currently being done to understand this form of malaria and how native bird populations can be saved from extinction.
Sample citations: [3] [4]

A citation code consists of a hyperlinked reference within "ref" begin and end codes.

Section 1

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Life cycle of avian malaria in penguin. By Grilo, et al. [5]


Every point of information REQUIRES CITATION using the citation tool shown above.

Section 2

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Mortality in Amakihi infected with avian malaria. By Atkinson, et al. [6]


Section 3

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Section 4

Conclusion

References

  1. [https://www.caister.com/malaria Martinsen and Perkins 2013. The Diversity of Plasmodium and other Haemosporidians: The Intersections of Taxonomy, Phylogenetics, and Genomics. In: Carlton, J., Perkins, S., Deitsch, editors. Malaria Parasites: Comparative Genomics, Evolution and Molecular Biology. Norfolk: Caister Academic Press. p 1- 15.
  2. LaPointe et al.: Ecology and conservation biology of avian malaria. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2012. 1249:211-226
  3. Hodgkin, J. and Partridge, F.A. "Caenorhabditis elegans meets microsporidia: the nematode killers from Paris." 2008. PLoS Biology 6:2634-2637.
  4. Bartlett et al.: Oncolytic viruses as therapeutic cancer vaccines. Molecular Cancer 2013 12:103.
  5. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03079457.2016.1149145 Grilo et al.2016. Malaria in penguins—current perceptions. Avian Pathology. 45(4): 393-407. ]
  6. Atkinson et al. 2000. Pathogenicity of avian malaria in experimentally infected Hawaii Amakihi. Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 36(2): 197-204



Authored for BIOL 238 Microbiology, taught by Joan Slonczewski, 2018, Kenyon College.