https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&feed=atom&action=historyShewanella oneidensis MR-1: Background and Applications - Revision history2024-03-29T00:41:19ZRevision history for this page on the wikiMediaWiki 1.39.6https://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=123749&oldid=prevRmohan at 01:42, 13 May 20162016-05-13T01:42:29Z<p></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By: Cami Odio</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>By: Cami Odio</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>The genus <i>Shewanella</i> consists of gram-negative proteobacteria that are typically rod shaped, 2-3 μm in length, and 0.4-0.7 μm in diameter (Fig 1). These facultative anaerobes are often found in marine sediments and can swim with the aid of a single polar flagellum (Venkateswaran et al., 1999). Since the modern characterization <i>Shewanella</i> in 1988, DNA:DNA hybridization and 16S rRNA sequencing has been used to identify more than 40 distinct species. The features that characterize this genus include psychrotolerance, mild halophilicity, and the capacity to reduce an unparalleled array of inorganic and organic compounds for respiration (Gralnick et al., 2007). Their capacity to respire on various metals as well as their production of endogenous hydrocarobons has ignited tremendous interest in the characterization and potential applications of these microorganisms. <br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>The genus <i>Shewanella</i> consists of gram-negative proteobacteria that are typically rod shaped, 2-3 μm in length, and 0.4-0.7 μm in diameter (Fig 1). These facultative anaerobes are often found in marine sediments and can swim with the aid of a single polar flagellum (Venkateswaran et al., 1999). Since the modern characterization <i>Shewanella</i> in 1988, DNA:DNA hybridization and 16S rRNA sequencing has been used to identify more than 40 distinct species. The features that characterize this genus include psychrotolerance, mild halophilicity, and the capacity to reduce an unparalleled array of inorganic and organic compounds for respiration (Gralnick et al., 2007). Their capacity to respire on various metals as well as their production of endogenous hydrocarobons has ignited tremendous interest in the characterization and potential applications of these microorganisms<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">. S. onidensis is being looked at as a possible aid in the fight against nuclear waste leakage: It can respire Uranium when iron is not present. When Iron is not present S. onidensis can reduce Uranium as its final electron acceptor in its electron transport chain. Reducing the Uranium causes the compound to precipitate out of water. The now solid Uranium can be collected and moved to a safe nuclear waste site</ins>. <br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Brief History==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Brief History==</div></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Venkateswaran K, Moser D, Dollhopf M, Lies D, Saffarini D, et al. 1999. “Polyphasic taxonomy of the genus Shewanella and description of Shewanella oneidensis sp.” nov. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49:705–24<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Venkateswaran K, Moser D, Dollhopf M, Lies D, Saffarini D, et al. 1999. “Polyphasic taxonomy of the genus Shewanella and description of Shewanella oneidensis sp.” nov. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 49:705–24<br></div></td></tr>
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</table>Rmohanhttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=65066&oldid=prevBarichD at 14:34, 23 July 20112011-07-23T14:34:17Z<p></p>
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<tr><td colspan="2" class="diff-side-deleted"></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">{{Curated}}</ins></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:introfig.png|thumb|300px|right|<b>Figure 1. <i>Shewanella onedensis</i> MR-1 growing on hematite</b>. <i>Shewanella</i> are gram-negative, proteobacteria that are facultative anaerobes and can respire on a tremendous variety of inorganic and organic electron acceptors. One such electron acceptor is Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, which is commonly found in the clay hematite. (Photo from Oak Ridge National Laboratory; http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v37_3_04/article02.shtml).]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:introfig.png|thumb|300px|right|<b>Figure 1. <i>Shewanella onedensis</i> MR-1 growing on hematite</b>. <i>Shewanella</i> are gram-negative, proteobacteria that are facultative anaerobes and can respire on a tremendous variety of inorganic and organic electron acceptors. One such electron acceptor is Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>, which is commonly found in the clay hematite. (Photo from Oak Ridge National Laboratory; http://www.ornl.gov/info/ornlreview/v37_3_04/article02.shtml).]]</div></td></tr>
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</table>BarichDhttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64449&oldid=prevOdioC: /* Using Shewanella Hydrocarbons */2011-05-12T01:44:10Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Using Shewanella Hydrocarbons</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Dr. Wackett, Dr. Gralnick, and their team from the University of Minnesota were recently awarded $2.2 million dollars from the U.S. Department of Energy to attempt to modify these hydrocarbons into a fuel that resembles petroleum. They have proposed a series of steps not only to modify the <i>Shewanella</i> hydrocarbons but also to feed the <i>Shewanella</i> with sugars from phototrophic bacteria. By coupling the production of hydrocarbons by <i>Shewanella</i> with the metabolism of phototrophic bacteria, these scientists are proposing a renewable source of petroleum. Further, since phototrophic bacteria use CO<sub>2</sub>, producing petroleum in this way would also consume green house gases produced by the combustion of hydrocarbons. This exciting proposition is depicted in Figure 16 where <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 bacteria are co-cultured with photorophic bacteria (<i>Synechococcus</i>), which use carbon dioxide and sunlight to feed the <i>Shewanella</i> (pathway to the right). Dr. Fredrickson and Dr. Beliaev at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) direct the co-culturing work. The alternative method for feeding the <i>Shewanella</i> bacteria involves modifying the <i>Shewanella</i> genome such that they metabolize using renewable substrates (such as ethanol), and Dr. Wackett and Dr. Gralnick direct this work. A thin film bio-catalyst is also being developed, by Biocee technologies, to coat the surface on which the biofilms grow such that the <i>Shewanella</i> can grow quickly, stably, and at the lowest cost possible. Finally, Dr. Schmidt and Dr. Bhan at the University of Minnesota are investigating new technology to process the <i>Shewanella</i> hydrocarbons such that they can be used as liquid fuels.<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Dr. Wackett, Dr. Gralnick, and their team from the University of Minnesota were recently awarded $2.2 million dollars from the U.S. Department of Energy to attempt to modify these hydrocarbons into a fuel that resembles petroleum. They have proposed a series of steps not only to modify the <i>Shewanella</i> hydrocarbons but also to feed the <i>Shewanella</i> with sugars from phototrophic bacteria. By coupling the production of hydrocarbons by <i>Shewanella</i> with the metabolism of phototrophic bacteria, these scientists are proposing a renewable source of petroleum. Further, since phototrophic bacteria use CO<sub>2</sub>, producing petroleum in this way would also consume green house gases produced by the combustion of hydrocarbons. This exciting proposition is depicted in Figure 16 where <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 bacteria are co-cultured with photorophic bacteria (<i>Synechococcus</i>), which use carbon dioxide and sunlight to feed the <i>Shewanella</i> (pathway to the right). Dr. Fredrickson and Dr. Beliaev at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) direct the co-culturing work. The alternative method for feeding the <i>Shewanella</i> bacteria involves modifying the <i>Shewanella</i> genome such that they metabolize using renewable substrates (such as ethanol), and Dr. Wackett and Dr. Gralnick direct this work. A thin film bio-catalyst is also being developed, by Biocee technologies, to coat the surface on which the biofilms grow such that the <i>Shewanella</i> can grow quickly, stably, and at the lowest cost possible. Finally, Dr. Schmidt and Dr. Bhan at the University of Minnesota are investigating new technology to process the <i>Shewanella</i> hydrocarbons such that they can be used as liquid fuels.<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Because this work only began in 2009, few works are published on the actual mechanisms of <i>Shewanella</i> growth on the bio-catalyst or hydrocarbon altering. However, because of the potential of <i>Shewanella</i> to both act as a renewable source of hydrocarbons and consume dangerous green house gases, this work has been well funded by the U.S. government. Further, the progress of these scientists will likely be of great interest to microbiologists and the community as a whole.<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Because this work only began in 2009, few works are published on the actual mechanisms of <i>Shewanella</i> growth on the bio-catalyst or hydrocarbon altering. However, because of the potential of <i>Shewanella</i> to both act as a renewable source of hydrocarbons and <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">indirectly </ins>consume dangerous green house gases, this work has been well funded by the U.S. government. Further, the progress of these scientists will likely be of great interest to microbiologists and the community as a whole.<br></div></td></tr>
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</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64448&oldid=prevOdioC: /* Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells */2011-05-12T01:41:37Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Although microbial fuel cells show interesting potential as sources of energy for wastewater treatment, monitoring devices, and hydrogen production, their efficiency is a continual challenge. Particularly, if the anode is not well sealed, oxygen can leak in providing an alternative electron acceptor to the bacteria such that they can respire without generating electricity (Liu et al., 2004). Further, wastewater contains a plethora of alternative electron acceptors, such as <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">nitrate </del>or <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">sulfate</del>, which can also be used as alternatives to the cathode so the bacteria will respire without producing electricity (He et al., 2005). Improving the efficiency of MFCs requires advancing the infrastructure of the cell itself such as separate chambers for the anode and cathode to prevent leakage of electron acceptors. Further, running the cell at a higher power density also tends to increase efficiency perhaps because there is less time for electrons to be lost to alternative acceptors. These challenges are likely to be overcome through further study of the MFC infrastructure and the bacteria that colonize the anodes (Logan et al., 2006).<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Although microbial fuel cells show interesting potential as sources of energy for wastewater treatment, monitoring devices, and hydrogen production, their efficiency is a continual challenge. Particularly, if the anode is not well sealed, oxygen can leak in providing an alternative electron acceptor to the bacteria such that they can respire without generating electricity (Liu et al., 2004). Further, wastewater contains a plethora of alternative electron acceptors, such as <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">nitrates </ins>or <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">sulfates</ins>, which can also be used as alternatives to the cathode so the bacteria will respire without producing electricity (He et al., 2005). Improving the efficiency of MFCs requires advancing the infrastructure of the cell itself such as separate chambers for the anode and cathode to prevent leakage of electron acceptors. Further, running the cell at a higher power density also tends to increase efficiency perhaps because there is less time for electrons to be lost to alternative acceptors. These challenges are likely to be overcome through further study of the MFC infrastructure and the bacteria that colonize the anodes (Logan et al., 2006).<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Application: <i>Shewanella</i> to Generate Hydrocarbon Fuels==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Application: <i>Shewanella</i> to Generate Hydrocarbon Fuels==</div></td></tr>
</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64447&oldid=prevOdioC: /* MFCs and Clean Energy */2011-05-12T01:39:38Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">MFCs and Clean Energy</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====MFCs and Clean Energy====</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====MFCs and Clean Energy====</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Aside from small monitoring devices and wastewater treatment, using MFCs to produce electricity on a large scale will be difficult because of their inefficiencies (see "<del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">The </del>Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells"). However, MFCs can be easily altered to produce hydrogen gas rather than electricity. Specifically, hydrogen gas is a high energy molecule that has been proposed as a cleaner alternative to petroleum because burning it produces only water rather than exhaust fumes, which cause tremendous pollution and have been implicated in global climate change. However, hydrogen is not produced naturally in large quantities and thus some type of fossil fuel combustion or other energy source is required to split water (water electrolysis) for hydorgen production (Hydrogen Fuel Cells, 2006). MFCs offer an interesting alternative to hydrogen production because removing oxygen from the cathode and applying a small voltage (~0.25 V) results in the production of hydrogen gas at the cathode. This is called bacterial electrolysis of organic matter because the electrons and hydrogens come from organic matter rather than water (Rozendal et al., 2007). While the splitting of water to make hydrogen gas is highly endothermic and thus requires an input of energy (~1.8 V), bacterial electrolysis is very slightly exothermic, enough so to provide energy to the bacteria. Adding a small amount of voltage (~0.25 V), gives bacterial electrolysis enough energy to produce hydrogen gas. Overall, hydrogen production by bacteria represents a net energy gain by a factor of 5.8 when compared to the net loss of energy required for water electrolysis (Logan et al., 2006). Thus, the MFCs hold great potential as efficient hydrogen producers.<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Aside from small monitoring devices and wastewater treatment, using MFCs to produce electricity on a large scale will be difficult because of their inefficiencies (see "Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells"). However, MFCs can be easily altered to produce hydrogen gas rather than electricity. Specifically, hydrogen gas is a high energy molecule that has been proposed as a cleaner alternative to petroleum because burning it produces only water rather than exhaust fumes, which cause tremendous pollution and have been implicated in global climate change. However, hydrogen is not produced naturally in large quantities and thus some type of fossil fuel combustion or other energy source is required to split water (water electrolysis) for hydorgen production (Hydrogen Fuel Cells, 2006). MFCs offer an interesting alternative to hydrogen production because removing oxygen from the cathode and applying a small voltage (~0.25 V) results in the production of hydrogen gas at the cathode. This is called bacterial electrolysis of organic matter because the electrons and hydrogens come from organic matter rather than water (Rozendal et al., 2007). While the splitting of water to make hydrogen gas is highly endothermic and thus requires an input of energy (~1.8 V), bacterial electrolysis is very slightly exothermic, enough so to provide energy to the bacteria. Adding a small amount of voltage (~0.25 V), gives bacterial electrolysis enough energy to produce hydrogen gas. Overall, hydrogen production by bacteria represents a net energy gain by a factor of 5.8 when compared to the net loss of energy required for water electrolysis (Logan et al., 2006). Thus, the MFCs hold great potential as efficient hydrogen producers.<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells===</div></td></tr>
</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64446&oldid=prevOdioC: /* MFCs and Clean Energy */2011-05-12T01:39:21Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">MFCs and Clean Energy</span></span></p>
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<td colspan="2" style="background-color: #fff; color: #202122; text-align: center;">Revision as of 01:39, 12 May 2011</td>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====MFCs and Clean Energy====</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====MFCs and Clean Energy====</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Aside from small monitoring devices and wastewater treatment, using MFCs to produce electricity on a large scale will be difficult because of their inefficiencies (see <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">section 3.3</del>). However, MFCs can be easily altered to produce hydrogen gas rather than electricity. Specifically, hydrogen gas is a high energy molecule that has been proposed as a cleaner alternative to petroleum because burning it produces only water rather than exhaust fumes, which cause tremendous pollution and have been implicated in global climate change. However, hydrogen is not produced naturally in large quantities and thus some type of fossil fuel combustion or other energy source is required to split water (water electrolysis) for hydorgen production (Hydrogen Fuel Cells, 2006). MFCs offer an interesting alternative to hydrogen production because removing oxygen from the cathode and applying a small voltage (~0.25 V) results in the production of hydrogen gas at the cathode. This is called bacterial electrolysis of organic matter because the electrons and hydrogens come from organic matter rather than water (Rozendal et al., 2007). While the splitting of water to make hydrogen gas is highly endothermic and thus requires an input of energy (~1.8 V), bacterial electrolysis is very slightly exothermic, enough so to provide energy to the bacteria. Adding a small amount of voltage (~0.25 V), gives bacterial electrolysis enough energy to produce hydrogen gas. Overall, hydrogen production by bacteria represents a net energy gain by a factor of 5.8 when compared to the net loss of energy required for water electrolysis (Logan et al., 2006). Thus, the MFCs hold great potential as efficient hydrogen producers.<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Aside from small monitoring devices and wastewater treatment, using MFCs to produce electricity on a large scale will be difficult because of their inefficiencies (see <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">"The Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells"</ins>). However, MFCs can be easily altered to produce hydrogen gas rather than electricity. Specifically, hydrogen gas is a high energy molecule that has been proposed as a cleaner alternative to petroleum because burning it produces only water rather than exhaust fumes, which cause tremendous pollution and have been implicated in global climate change. However, hydrogen is not produced naturally in large quantities and thus some type of fossil fuel combustion or other energy source is required to split water (water electrolysis) for hydorgen production (Hydrogen Fuel Cells, 2006). MFCs offer an interesting alternative to hydrogen production because removing oxygen from the cathode and applying a small voltage (~0.25 V) results in the production of hydrogen gas at the cathode. This is called bacterial electrolysis of organic matter because the electrons and hydrogens come from organic matter rather than water (Rozendal et al., 2007). While the splitting of water to make hydrogen gas is highly endothermic and thus requires an input of energy (~1.8 V), bacterial electrolysis is very slightly exothermic, enough so to provide energy to the bacteria. Adding a small amount of voltage (~0.25 V), gives bacterial electrolysis enough energy to produce hydrogen gas. Overall, hydrogen production by bacteria represents a net energy gain by a factor of 5.8 when compared to the net loss of energy required for water electrolysis (Logan et al., 2006). Thus, the MFCs hold great potential as efficient hydrogen producers.<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Challenges of Microbial Fuel Cells===</div></td></tr>
</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64444&oldid=prevOdioC: /* Application: Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) */2011-05-12T01:36:48Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Application: Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs)</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>The three methods of extracellular metal reduction have given <i>Shewanella</i> incredible metabolic versatility that scientists are eager to harness. The first application of <i>Shewanella</i> microbes has been the development of microbial fuel cells. Fuel cells (such as batteries) generate electricity by separating the electron donor (anode) from the electron acceptor (cathode) such that electrons must pass through some resistor (any a product that requires electricity: calculator, flashlight, car) in order to reach the electron acceptor. Traveling from an electron donor to an electron acceptor is a favorable and spontaneous process for electrons, and as an electron current travels through resistors, it powers appliances (Logan et al. 2006).<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>The three methods of extracellular metal reduction have given <i>Shewanella</i> incredible metabolic versatility that scientists are eager to harness. The first application of <i>Shewanella</i> microbes has been the development of microbial fuel cells. Fuel cells (such as batteries) generate electricity by separating the electron donor (anode) from the electron acceptor (cathode) such that electrons must pass through some resistor (any a product that requires electricity: calculator, flashlight, car) in order to reach the electron acceptor. Traveling from an electron donor to an electron acceptor is a favorable and spontaneous process for electrons, and as an electron current travels through resistors, it powers appliances (Logan et al. 2006).<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) harness the electrons generated by bacteria (for respiration) to power fuel cells. Specifically, the microbial biofilms are grown on the anode where they separate hydrogens from the substances provided to them as food (microbial food can include wastewater, acetate, formaldehyde, etc). In order to reach the cathode (spontaneous reaction), electrons must travel through the resistor, and the protons left <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">beyond </del>move to the cathode through a proton exchange membrane. At the cathode, oxygen can act as a terminal electron acceptor and the electrons and protons are combined with oxygen to make water (Fig 12; Slonczewski et al., 2001)</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) harness the electrons generated by bacteria (for respiration) to power fuel cells. Specifically, the microbial biofilms are grown on the anode where they separate hydrogens from the substances provided to them as food (microbial food can include wastewater, acetate, formaldehyde, etc). In order to reach the cathode (spontaneous reaction), electrons must travel through the resistor, and the protons left <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">behind </ins>move to the cathode through a proton exchange membrane. At the cathode, oxygen can act as a terminal electron acceptor<ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">, </ins>and the electrons and protons are combined with oxygen to make water (Fig 12; Slonczewski et al., 2001)</div></td></tr>
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</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64442&oldid=prevOdioC: /* Transfer of Electrons: Nanowire Synthesis */2011-05-12T01:33:38Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Transfer of Electrons: Nanowire Synthesis</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Transfer of Electrons: Nanowire Synthesis===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Transfer of Electrons: Nanowire Synthesis===</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:nanowires.png|thumb|200px|left|<b>Figure 10.</b> A) <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 produce confluent biofilms and filamentous nanowires when exposed to electron-acceptor limited conditions. B) Very few nanowires are visible by scanning electron microscopy when <i>Shewanella</i> MR-1 biofilms are exposed to excess electron acceptor (20% dissolved O2). (Photo from supporting figures of Gorby et al., 2006: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1544091/)]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:nanowires.png|thumb|200px|left|<b>Figure 10.</b> A) <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 produce confluent biofilms and filamentous nanowires when exposed to electron-acceptor limited conditions. B) Very few nanowires are visible by scanning electron microscopy when <i>Shewanella</i> MR-1 biofilms are exposed to excess electron acceptor (20% dissolved O2). (Photo from supporting figures of Gorby et al., 2006: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1544091/)]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Along with cytochromes and riboflavins, <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 have also been shown to synthesize pilus-like, electrically conducive appendages known as bacterial nanowires. Gorby et al. (2006) viewed these nanowires using scanning electron microscopy in <i>Shewanella</i> that had been exposed to very low oxygen conditions or anaerobic conditions with low concentrations of electron acceptors such as Fe<sup>3+</sup> or fumurate. By contrast, <i>Shewanella</i> that were exposed to high oxygen conditions (O2 > 2% air saturation) did not produce confluent biofilms or extensive nanowires (Fig. 10). The nanowires were 50-150 nm in diameter and extended tens of microns or longer connecting the bacteria to each other as well as to the surface on which the biofilm was growing. Further, while <i>Geobacter</i> produces long thin filaments as nanowires, <i>Shewanella</i> seem to package multiple filaments together into a type of conductive cable.<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>Along with cytochromes and riboflavins, <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 have also been shown to synthesize pilus-like, electrically conducive appendages known as bacterial nanowires. Gorby et al. (2006) viewed these nanowires using scanning electron microscopy in <i>Shewanella</i> that had been exposed to very low oxygen conditions or anaerobic conditions with low concentrations of electron acceptors such as Fe<sup>3+</sup> or fumurate. By contrast, <i>Shewanella</i> that were exposed to high oxygen conditions (O2 > 2% air saturation) did not produce confluent biofilms or extensive nanowires (Fig. 10). The nanowires <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">produced in anaerobic conditions </ins>were 50-150 nm in diameter and extended tens of microns or longer connecting the bacteria to each other as well as to the surface on which the biofilm was growing. Further, while <i>Geobacter</i> produces long thin filaments as nanowires, <i>Shewanella</i> seem to package multiple filaments together into a type of conductive cable.<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:crystals.png|thumb|200px|right|<b>Figure 11. Reduced crystalline iron-oxide forms in the presence of <i>Shewanella</i> nanowires.</b> A) Transmission electron microscopy reveals nanocrystals of reduced iron-oxide along the length of <i>Shewanella</i> filaments (indicated by arrows). B) Iron minerals crystallized at the top of the media where no cells were present suggesting that the nanowires can reach a significant distance from the cells to reduce aqueous iron oxide. These nanocrystals are not present when the <i>Shewanella</i> cells are mutated in their OmcA or MtrC cytochromes, suggesting that these cytochromes are crucial for filament conductivity.(Photo from supporting figures of Gorby et al., 2006: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1544091/)]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:crystals.png|thumb|200px|right|<b>Figure 11. Reduced crystalline iron-oxide forms in the presence of <i>Shewanella</i> nanowires.</b> A) Transmission electron microscopy reveals nanocrystals of reduced iron-oxide along the length of <i>Shewanella</i> filaments (indicated by arrows). B) Iron minerals crystallized at the top of the media where no cells were present suggesting that the nanowires can reach a significant distance from the cells to reduce aqueous iron oxide. These nanocrystals are not present when the <i>Shewanella</i> cells are mutated in their OmcA or MtrC cytochromes, suggesting that these cytochromes are crucial for filament conductivity.(Photo from supporting figures of Gorby et al., 2006: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1544091/)]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>The group demonstrated that these extracellular appendages transmit current by incubating <i>Shewanella</i> with an aqueous suspension of the poorly crystalline silica hydrous ferric oxide (Si-HFO). When they viewed the cultures with transmission electron microscopy, they discovered that the Si-HFO had been transformed to the reduced form of nanocrystalline magnetite along the extracellular features, which were consistent with the dimensions of nanowires. Further, when they visualized samples from the top of the medium, they also found crystalline solid-phase iron oxide (Fig 11).Since there were no cells present at the top of the media, this finding suggests that the nanowires could stretch a significant distance from the cells in order to reduce the aqueous iron oxide, transforming it into crystalline structures (Gorby et al., 2006). In a later study, Gorby et al. (2010) directly measured the conductivity of the nanowires by putting nanofabricated electrodes at the top of the nanowires. They also tested whether <i>Shewanella</i> nanowires could bridge a metallic electrode and the conductive tip of an atomic force microscope. Using these methods, they discovered that the nanowires are conductive along a micrometer length scale and can transport electrons at rates up to 109/s at 100 mV of applied bias and 1 Ω*cm of resistivity.<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>The group demonstrated that these extracellular appendages transmit current by incubating <i>Shewanella</i> with an aqueous suspension of the poorly crystalline silica hydrous ferric oxide (Si-HFO). When they viewed the cultures with transmission electron microscopy, they discovered that the Si-HFO had been transformed to the reduced form of nanocrystalline magnetite along the extracellular features, which were consistent with the dimensions of nanowires. Further, when they visualized samples from the top of the medium, they also found crystalline solid-phase iron oxide (Fig 11).Since there were no cells present at the top of the media, this finding suggests that the nanowires could stretch a significant distance from the cells in order to reduce the aqueous iron oxide, transforming it into crystalline structures (Gorby et al., 2006). In a later study, Gorby et al. (2010) directly measured the conductivity of the nanowires by putting nanofabricated electrodes at the top of the nanowires. They also tested whether <i>Shewanella</i> nanowires could bridge a metallic electrode and the conductive tip of an atomic force microscope. Using these methods, they discovered that the nanowires are conductive along a micrometer length scale and can transport electrons at rates up to 109/s at 100 mV of applied bias and 1 Ω*cm of resistivity.<br></div></td></tr>
</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64441&oldid=prevOdioC: /* Riboflavins */2011-05-12T01:31:27Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Riboflavins</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====Riboflavins====</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>====Riboflavins====</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:riboflavin.png|thumb|200px|right|<b>Figure 9. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) contains double bonds that allow the small energy transitions for the carrying of electrons.</b> The largely polar tale also increases the solubility of this molecule such that it can shuttle electrons from cell surface to external metals (Photo from Wikimedia commons: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riboflavin.svg)]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:riboflavin.png|thumb|200px|right|<b>Figure 9. Riboflavin (vitamin B2) contains double bonds that allow the small energy transitions for the carrying of electrons.</b> The largely polar tale also increases the solubility of this molecule such that it can shuttle electrons from cell surface to external metals (Photo from Wikimedia commons: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Riboflavin.svg)]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>In Figure 7, the reduction on the left depicts intermediate flavins as part of the metal reduction pathway because they have been shown to shuttle electrons to metals that do not contact extracellular cytochromes. Riboflavins, otherwise known as vitamin B2 (Figure 9), have conjugated double bonds that allow the small energy transitions useful for the carrying electrons. Further, the largely polar <del style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">tale </del>increases the solubility of riboflavin such that it can shuttle electrons from cell surface to external metals. Marsili et al. (2007) discovered the use of riboflavins as soluble electron shuttles when the media surrounding biofilms of <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 was removed and electron transfer dropped by > 70%. In organisms that use strictly outer membrane cytochromes, such as <i>Geobacter</i>, the removal of the media surrounding the biofilm has a minimal affect on rates of electron transfer (> 5%). This finding suggested that <i>Shewanella</i> produce a molecule that completely dissociates from the membrane and moves freely in the media. When the components of the media were characterized using reverse phase liquid chromatography coupled with secondary mass spectroscopy (LC-MS), the soluble, electron carrier riboflavin was identified. The study also demonstrated that riboflavins quickly adhere to Fe<sup>3+</sup> and Mn<sup>4+</sup>, which are commonly reduced by <i>Shewanella</i> further supporting the hypothesis that riboflavins act as electron shuttles for the microbes. The production of riboflavins helps explain the ability of <i>Shewanella</i> to transport electrons to metals that are > 50 μm away from the cell surface (Lies et al., 2005).<br></div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div><br>In Figure 7, the reduction on the left depicts intermediate flavins as part of the metal reduction pathway because they have been shown to shuttle electrons to metals that do not contact extracellular cytochromes. Riboflavins, otherwise known as vitamin B2 (Figure 9), have conjugated double bonds that allow the small energy transitions useful for the carrying electrons. Further, the largely polar <ins style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: none;">tail </ins>increases the solubility of riboflavin such that it can shuttle electrons from cell surface to external metals. Marsili et al. (2007) discovered the use of riboflavins as soluble electron shuttles when the media surrounding biofilms of <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 was removed and electron transfer dropped by > 70%. In organisms that use strictly outer membrane cytochromes, such as <i>Geobacter</i>, the removal of the media surrounding the biofilm has a minimal affect on rates of electron transfer (> 5%). This finding suggested that <i>Shewanella</i> produce a molecule that completely dissociates from the membrane and moves freely in the media. When the components of the media were characterized using reverse phase liquid chromatography coupled with secondary mass spectroscopy (LC-MS), the soluble, electron carrier riboflavin was identified. The study also demonstrated that riboflavins quickly adhere to Fe<sup>3+</sup> and Mn<sup>4+</sup>, which are commonly reduced by <i>Shewanella</i> further supporting the hypothesis that riboflavins act as electron shuttles for the microbes. The production of riboflavins helps explain the ability of <i>Shewanella</i> to transport electrons to metals that are > 50 μm away from the cell surface (Lies et al., 2005).<br></div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><br/></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Transfer of Electrons: Nanowire Synthesis===</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>===Transfer of Electrons: Nanowire Synthesis===</div></td></tr>
</table>OdioChttps://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php?title=Shewanella_oneidensis_MR-1:_Background_and_Applications&diff=64438&oldid=prevOdioC: /* Mechanism of Action for Metal Reduction: Biofilm Formation */2011-05-12T01:28:02Z<p><span dir="auto"><span class="autocomment">Mechanism of Action for Metal Reduction: Biofilm Formation</span></span></p>
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<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Mechanism of Action for Metal Reduction: Biofilm Formation==</div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>==Mechanism of Action for Metal Reduction: Biofilm Formation==</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="−"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #ffe49c; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:IVpilus.png|thumb|200px|left|<b>Figure 4. Synthesis of type IV pili. </b> A)The pilus is about 6 nm in diameter, and the assembly and disassembly requires the hydrolysis of nucleoside triphosphate in the inner membrane. B) The retraction of homologous type IV pilus in <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>. Fluorescence microscopy was used to visualize filament b retracting; then filament d extending at 6 seconds and retracting. Filament c extends at 24 seconds and then retracts (Pictures from Slonczewski, 2011).]] [[Image:biofilmbw.png|thumb|250px|right|<b>Figure 5. <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> grows more robust and confluent biofilms in low-nutrient media.</b> The shadow projections of confocal laser scanning microscopy of biofilm formation at 24 and 48-h. Cells were irrigated with LM (0.5 mM lactate), LM4L (2.0 mM lactate), or nutritionally rich LB (lysogeny broth) medium, and the scale bar is 100 μm (Photo from: Thormann et al., 2004: http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/186/23/8096).]]</div></td><td class="diff-marker" data-marker="+"></td><td style="color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #a3d3ff; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>[[Image:IVpilus.png|thumb|200px|left|<b>Figure 4. Synthesis of type IV pili. </b> A) The pilus is about 6 nm in diameter, and the assembly and disassembly requires the hydrolysis of nucleoside triphosphate in the inner membrane. B) The retraction of homologous type IV pilus in <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>. Fluorescence microscopy was used to visualize filament b retracting; then filament d extending at 6 seconds and retracting. Filament c extends at 24 seconds and then retracts (Pictures from Slonczewski, 2011).]] [[Image:biofilmbw.png|thumb|250px|right|<b>Figure 5. <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> grows more robust and confluent biofilms in low-nutrient media.</b> The shadow projections of confocal laser scanning microscopy of biofilm formation at 24 and 48-h. Cells were irrigated with LM (0.5 mM lactate), LM4L (2.0 mM lactate), or nutritionally rich LB (lysogeny broth) medium, and the scale bar is 100 μm (Photo from: Thormann et al., 2004: http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/186/23/8096).]]</div></td></tr>
<tr><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The ability to respire on insoluble substances is a true biological feat that scientists have begun to deeply investigate. The first step to successful reduction of extracellular metals is the formation of biofilms by <i>Shewanella</i> on the metal oxide. Biofilms facilitate close contact between the bacteria and the oxidized metal. A study by Thormann et al. (2004) investigated mechanism of biofilm formation by <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 on glass surfaces. They reported that the microbes first attach and grow laterally until they cover the majority of the surface available to them. The <i>Shewanella</i> then begin to develop the biofilm vertically creating towering structures (Fig 3). Using mutagenesis experiments, the scientists discovered that the microbes do not need to swim in order to attach to the surface. The swimming motility is actually critical to formation of the three dimensional structures. Instead, the biosynthesis of a type IV pilus (Fig 4A) is crucial to microbe to surface adhesion and the ability to retract pili (Fig 4B) is required for lateral coverage by the biofilm. The scientists also reported that the <i>Shewanella</i> grow more robust biofilms, with greater microbe to surface interactions, when nutrient levels are poor (Fig 5). This probably happens because when nutrient levels are high in the media and oxygen is available (as was the case in this experiment), the organisms can simply catabolize the nutrients aerobically rather than investing energy in the formation of a biofilm for low energy-yielding respiration. However, the typically anaerobic natural environments of <i>Shewanella</i> encourage biofilm formation, which allows them to thrive on nutrients that most other organisms cannot use. <br></div></td><td class="diff-marker"></td><td style="background-color: #f8f9fa; color: #202122; font-size: 88%; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px 1px 1px 4px; border-radius: 0.33em; border-color: #eaecf0; vertical-align: top; white-space: pre-wrap;"><div>The ability to respire on insoluble substances is a true biological feat that scientists have begun to deeply investigate. The first step to successful reduction of extracellular metals is the formation of biofilms by <i>Shewanella</i> on the metal oxide. Biofilms facilitate close contact between the bacteria and the oxidized metal. A study by Thormann et al. (2004) investigated mechanism of biofilm formation by <i>Shewanella oneidensis</i> MR-1 on glass surfaces. They reported that the microbes first attach and grow laterally until they cover the majority of the surface available to them. The <i>Shewanella</i> then begin to develop the biofilm vertically creating towering structures (Fig 3). Using mutagenesis experiments, the scientists discovered that the microbes do not need to swim in order to attach to the surface. The swimming motility is actually critical to formation of the three dimensional structures. Instead, the biosynthesis of a type IV pilus (Fig 4A) is crucial to microbe to surface adhesion and the ability to retract pili (Fig 4B) is required for lateral coverage by the biofilm. The scientists also reported that the <i>Shewanella</i> grow more robust biofilms, with greater microbe to surface interactions, when nutrient levels are poor (Fig 5). This probably happens because when nutrient levels are high in the media and oxygen is available (as was the case in this experiment), the organisms can simply catabolize the nutrients aerobically rather than investing energy in the formation of a biofilm for low energy-yielding respiration. However, the typically anaerobic natural environments of <i>Shewanella</i> encourage biofilm formation, which allows them to thrive on nutrients that most other organisms cannot use. <br></div></td></tr>
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</table>OdioC