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<h1 class="firstHeading">Chlamydophila psittaci</h1>


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===Species===
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<p><b>A <a href="/index.php/Microbial_Biorealm" title="Microbial Biorealm">Microbial Biorealm</a> page on the genus <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i></b>


</p>
{|
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'''NCBI: [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Tree&id=2&lvl=3&lin=f&keep=1&srchmode=1&unlock Taxonomy]'''
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Classification"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Classification</span></a>
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<ul>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Higher_order_taxa"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Higher order taxa</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2"><a href="#Species"><span class="tocnumber">1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Species</span></a></li>


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''Stigmatella aurantica''
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Description_and_significance"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Description and significance</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Genome_structure"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Genome structure</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Cell_structure_and_metabolism"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Cell structure and metabolism</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Ecology"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Ecology</span></a></li>


<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Pathology"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Pathology</span></a></li>
==Description and significance==
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Application_to_Biotechnology"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Application to Biotechnology</span></a></li>
''Stigmatella aurantiac'' is a member of myxovbacteria, which are known to have complex development and differtiating life cycles, including one as individual organism and one in a group.(1) Myxovbacteria also have a unique ability to aggregate and move as a population has the food source becomes scarce. Single cells can be motile by “adventurous motility” and seek other ''Stigmatella aurantiac'' . As cell density increases, the organism switches to “social motility” of cells can gather together into masses termed fruiting bodies that may consist of up to 100,000 cells. (1) There is a physical and metabolic change when ''Stigmatella aurantiac'' form fruiting bodies. Through chemical signals between cells, the ''Stigmatella aurantiac'' develop fruiting bodies almost as a multi-cellular organism, including specialized cells and differentiation of cellular structure according to position. (1)
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#Current_Research"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Current Research</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
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''Stigmatella aurantiac'' is a rod shaped gram negative bacterium.  They are terrestrial organisms that are commonly found on rotting wood and bark.(1) As a mesophile, they grow in moderate temperatures (between 25-40 degrees Celsius). Their ability to move as a fruiting body was a well researched topic, and led to a deeper understanding of cell to cell communication and signals. ''Stigmatella aurantiac'' also produce antimicrobial compounds, such as aurafuron A and stigmatellin, which may beimportant as anti cancer agents and to produce new antibodies. (4)
<a name="Classification"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Classification</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:152px;"><a href="/index.php/Image:Mmi_867_f7.gif" class="internal" title="Immunofluorescence microscopy of C. psittaci GPIC-infected HeLa cells at 30 h PI. [Copyrighted by: Bannantine, J. P.]"><img src="/images/7/7d/Mmi_867_f7.gif" alt="Immunofluorescence microscopy of C. psittaci GPIC-infected HeLa cells at 30 h PI. [Copyrighted by: Bannantine, J. P.]" width="150" height="191" longdesc="/index.php/Image:Mmi_867_f7.gif" class="thumbimage" /></a>  <div class="thumbcaption">Immunofluorescence microscopy of C. psittaci GPIC-infected HeLa cells at 30 h PI. [<a href="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/na102/home/ACS/publisher/synergy/journals/production/mmi/1998/28/5/j.1365-2958.1998.00867.x/images/large/mmi_867_f7.gif" class="external text" title="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/na102/home/ACS/publisher/synergy/journals/production/mmi/1998/28/5/j.1365-2958.1998.00867.x/images/large/mmi_867_f7.gif" rel="nofollow">Copyrighted by: Bannantine, J. P.</a>]</div></div></div>
<a name="Higher_order_taxa"></a><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section: Higher order taxa">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Higher order taxa</span></h3>


<p>Superkingdom: Bacteria, Superphylum: Chlamydiae/Verrucomicrobia group, Phylum: Chlamydiae, Class: Chlamydiae, Order: Chlamydiales, Family: Chlamydiaceae, Genus: Chlamydophila; Species: Chlamydophila psittaci (4)
==Genome structure==
</p>
''Stigmatella aurantiac'' has a circular chromosome that consists of 10.2654 million base pairs with a GC content of 67.4% and 43 pseudo genes. The chromosome is composed of DNA and codes for 8543 proteins.(1) The gene fbfA is responsible for the fruiting body formation, allowing the structural and metabolic changes needed to form the myxospores. In experiments where the fbFA gene was deactivated, the bacterium formed structured clumps instead of fruiting bodies. (6) The genome also produces antimicrobial compounds that can kill and lyse other microbes. This has peaked the interests of many because of the compounds potential as anti cancer agents and antibodies. (4)
<a name="Species"></a><h3><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section: Species">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Species</span></h3>
<p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>
</p><p>previously known as <i>Chlamydia psittaci</i>
</p>
<a name="Description_and_significance"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section: Description and significance">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Description and significance</span></h2>


<p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> is an obligate, intracellular, gram negative bacteria that occur as a parasite in eukaryotic cells. These cells are coccoid and non-motile, with sizes ranging from 0.2-1.5 m. The cylamydial cell envelope lacks peptidoglycan, but instead has an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide and a cytoplasmic membrane bilayer. (1,6,7)
==Cell structure and metabolism==
</p><p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> causes a systemic infectious disease, psittacosis, in the parrot family and other avian species. <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> is present in feces, nasal secretions, and feathers of infected birds. This bacteria may be transmitted to humans through inhalation of dust from the contaminated bird. In 1930, the largest epidemic of psittacosis affected 750-800 individuals, which lead to the isolation of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> in Europe and the United States. A total of 923 human cases of psittacosis have been reported to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention from 1988 through 2003. The term psittacosis is derived from the Greek word for parrot. (2,6,7)
''Stigmatella aurantica'' has two distinct bodies. The vegetative cells of ''Stigmatella aurantica'' are flexible, slender rods that are 5 to 8 um long and .7 and .8  wide. The fine structure resembles that of other gram negative bacteria. The cell wall is composed of a cytolplasmic membrane with a triple layered organization and a cell wall. The cell wall consists of an outer triple layer and third dense monolayer in the periplasm. (3)
</p><p>For many years, <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> was detected through the isolation of the organism through cell culture, which required scraping of bacterial cells from the site of infection of patients. New techniques of polymerase chain reaction and ligase chain reaction has improved detection of these specimens. These new diagnostic techniques involves fluorescence microscopy and enzyme-linked immunoassays. (6)
</p><p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> infection may be treated through antimicrobial therapy such as tetracycline, doxycycline, erythromycin, and sulfonamides. Mortality rate prior to antimicrobial treatment was approximately 15-20% and has decreased to less than 1% with appropriate antibiotic therapy. (3,6)


</p>
The myxospores of ''Stigmatella aurantica'' are short, fat, rods that are 1.5 to 3.5 um in length and 1.1 to 1.8 um in width. There are three distinct changes that occur between these two physical states:  the formation of large amounts of granules; the formation of a capsule; and heavy folding of the outer third layer of the cell wall. The triple layer of the cell wall formed tight packs of either lamellar or vesicular organization. The change in the cell shape takes place within 10 to 15 minutes,  and the fruiting body formation requires many hours during which time the cell can change its metabolism and regulate changes in the cell wall structure much more efficiently. (3)
<a name="Genome_structure"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section: Genome structure">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Genome structure</span></h2>
<p>The complete genomic DNA sequences of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> is still in progress of sequencing. The genomic DNA sequences of Chlamydiaceae have been published for C. trachomatis, C. muridarum, C. pneumoniae, C. caviae, and C. abortus. It is known that the family of Chlamydiaceae genomes are fairly conserved. The chromosome of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> is therefore likely to be circular. The size and content of the genome has yet to be determined. Strains 6BC and E/B have been identified. <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> contains a circular plasmid strain, pCpA1, that has been sequenced to be 7,553 nucleotide long. This plasmid was sequenced in 11/15/1991 at the University of Manchester. The plasmid contains genes to encode for the major outer membrane proteins. (5,9,12)


</p><p>It is known that Omp genes encode for the outer membrane proteins, or polymorphic membrane proteins, and is important for the characteristic of Chlamydophila. The Omp1 outer membrane protein is involved in attachment and entry into host cells. The Omp2 cysteine-rich protein is important for reticular body to elementary body conversion. (6,14)
''Stigmatella aurantica'' are aerobic organisms  and therefore require oxygen to produce energy. ''Stigmatella aurantica'' has two food sources, decomposing wood and other microbes.. They can produce electron transport inhibitors, such as myxothiazol, the dawenols, themyxochromides, and iron chelators myxochelin A and B.  These compounds can kill and lyse on microbial cell.(7)
</p>
<a name="Cell_structure_and_metabolism"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section: Cell structure and metabolism">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Cell structure and metabolism</span></h2>
<div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/index.php/Image:Mmi2.gif" class="internal" title="IDual immunofluorescence confocal microscopy of C. psittaci GPIC-infected HeLa cells with α-IncA and α-IncB. A is a GPIC inclusion stained with α-IncB; B is the same inclusion stained with α-IncA and C is the merged images.[Copyrighted by: Bannantine, J. P.]"><img src="/images/5/5a/Mmi2.gif" alt="IDual immunofluorescence confocal microscopy of C. psittaci GPIC-infected HeLa cells with α-IncA and α-IncB. A is a GPIC inclusion stained with α-IncB; B is the same inclusion stained with α-IncA and C is the merged images.[Copyrighted by: Bannantine, J. P.]" width="300" height="151" longdesc="/index.php/Image:Mmi2.gif" class="thumbimage" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption">IDual immunofluorescence confocal microscopy of C. psittaci GPIC-infected HeLa cells with α-IncA and α-IncB. A is a GPIC inclusion stained with α-IncB; B is the same inclusion stained with α-IncA and C is the merged images.[<a href="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/na102/home/ACS/publisher/synergy/journals/production/mmi/1998/28/5/j.1365-2958.1998.00867.x/images/large/mmi_867_f8.gif" class="external text" title="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/na102/home/ACS/publisher/synergy/journals/production/mmi/1998/28/5/j.1365-2958.1998.00867.x/images/large/mmi_867_f8.gif" rel="nofollow">Copyrighted by: Bannantine, J. P.</a>]</div></div></div>
<p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> have major outer membrane proteins (MOMP), consisting of predominately Beta-sheet content, similar in function to the biochemical properties of porin protein. These channels are permeable to ATP and may be the route in which the bacterium takes advantage of nucleoside triphosphates. Although <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> have no known mechanism to metabolize glucose as a source of energy, it is known that Chlamydophila psittaci can obtain ATP and essential amino acids from the host cell. (6,7,8)


</p><p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> cannot synthesize pyrimidines or purines de novo, so it must salvage these from host. Though it can take up ATP, GTP, and TTP directly from host cells. It may not, however, take up UTP, CTP, dATP, dGTP, or dCTP from the host cell, and may not salvage exogenously supplied uridine, cytidine, or deoxycytidine. The primary source of pyrimidine nucleotides is via the salvage of uracil by a uracil phosphoribosyltransferase. The ATP-GTP transport system and intracelullar enzymes allows for metabolism of adenine, adenosine, guanosine, and guanine. The TTP transport system and intraceullar enzymes allows for the metabolism of uracil, deoxyuridine, thymine, and thymidine. In addition, the parasite could incorporate exogenous thymidine and thymine into DNA. There is no interconversion of nucleotides within the cell.  (13,14)
==Ecology==
</p><p><br />
''Stigmatella aurantica'' are found on rotting wood and soil. They are capable of breaking down an wide selection of peptidoglycans, polysaccharides, proteins and other cellular detritus. They appear in nature to help decompose otherwise insoluble biological debris. ''Stigmatella aurantica'' is also speculated to consume other microbes. ''Stigmatella aurantica'' can produce a variety of compounds that can kill and lyse microbial cells. By producing these antimicrobial compounds, ''Stigmatella aurantica'' maintains the balance of microbial population in the soil. (7)
</p>
<a name="Ecology"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section: Ecology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Ecology</span></h2>
<p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> is a pathogen which interacts with parrots, parakeets, canaries, and other avian species. The bacteria may be transmitted to humans through handling of sick birds. Human to human transfer to uncommon, although possible. Certain breeds of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> may infect sheep, goats, and cows. This species does not have any direct contribution to the environment because it cannot live outside its host. (3)


</p>
==Pathology==
<a name="Pathology"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section: Pathology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Pathology</span></h2>
''Stigmatella aurantica'' is not a pathogen.
<p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> causes an infection through the respiratory system by using chlamydial elementary bodies to attach to the respiratory epithelial cells of the host and is engulfed through phagocytosis. Elementary bodies spread via the blood steam to the reticuloendothelial system and become reticulate bodies, which depend on host cell ATP to grow. Within the inclusion of the host cell, reticular bodies undergo binary fission for 8-10 hours after infection, and continue to divide for 20 hours. Reticular bodies give rise to elementary bodies after 20 hours of infection. After 48-72 hours, the development cycle is completed and the infected host cell’s inclusion becomes filled with 10-1000 elementary bodies. Elementary bodies are released through lysis of the cell and may then infect fresh host cells.  (3,6,7)
</p><p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> affects the parrot family and other avian species. Once infected, these species will be susceptible to symptoms such as appetite and weight loss, diarrhea, sinusitis, and respiratory distress. Humans contract the disease through handling sick birds. Symptoms in humans include fever, cough, dyspnea, mild phryngitis, epistaxis, severe headache, and pneumonia. Certain breeds of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> may also infect sheep, goats, and cows. (3,6)
</p>


<a name="Application_to_Biotechnology"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section: Application to Biotechnology">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Application to Biotechnology</span></h2>
==Application to Biotechnology==
<p><i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> is not known to produce any useful compounds or enzymes. Due to its harmful pathogenic nature, studies have been developed to find proper vaccination against this bacteria. Current research have confirmed that the major outer membrane protein gene of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> may serve as a target for vaccination. (10)
Natural secondary metabolites have been the hot topic of research to find new compounds as antibodies and anti cancer agents. The secondary metabolites hold a lot of potential as an anti  cancer agents
</p>
<a name="Current_Research"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section: Current Research">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">Current Research</span></h2>


<p><b>July 2007 - Construction and immunogenicity of recombinant adenovirus expressing the major outer membrane protein (MOMP) of Chlamydophila psittaci in chicks.</b>
==Current Research==
</p><p>The first study explores the use of the major outer membrane protein encoded by the outer membrane protein 1 (omp1) gene, as a candidate for a vaccine against avian chlamydiosis. Pathogen free chicks were inoculated. Detection through an indirect hemagglutination test showed that these chicks generated antibodies against the major outer membrane protein of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>. 9 out of 10 vaccinated chicks were protected from the disease when challenged, whereas the control groups showed clinical signs of the disease when challenged. This study shows that the major outer membrane protein gene of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> may serve as a candidate vaccine against avian chlamydiosis. (10)
1) Recent research has been conducted where a new antibiotic polyketides, aurafuron A and B, were isolated from culture extracts of ''Stigmatella aurantic''. The strains DW4/3-1 and Sg a15 were taken for their secondary metabolites. DW4/3-1 produces the electron inhibitor myxothiazol, the dawenols, the myxochromides and theiron chelators myxochelin A and B. In the Sg a15, 5 different groups ofmetabolites were discovered. These were inhibitors of the eukaryotic electron transport: the aurachins, stigmatellins, myxochelins, myxalamids and small amounts of myxochromids. In addition to the strains of ''Stigmatella aurantica'', the new compounds, aurafuron A and B, were also isolated from a strain of the genus ''Archanguim''. Both Aurafuron A and B were seen to inhibit the growth of filamentous fungi. Also Aurafuron B weakly  active against a few Gram-positive bacteria. Both compounds were seen to be cytotoxic. (4)
</p><p><br />
<b>March 2007 - Chlamydiae and Atherosclerosis: Can Psittacine Cases Support the Link?</b>
</p><p>The second study examines whether Atherosclerosis, a common disease in birds, is caused by the pathogen <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i>. Out of 103 cases of advanced stages of atherosclerosis, only 4 (3.9%) were positive of chlamydiae in atherosclerotic tissue. Sequential analysis revealed high correlation (94%-100%) with <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> in three of the four cases. Because of the low occurrence  of chlamydiae in atherosclerotic tissue (3.9%) during advanced stages of Atherosclerosis, a relationship between chlamydiae and atherosclerosis in pet birds is improbable. (11)


</p><p><br />
2) Secondary metabolites of myxobacteria that have been isolated, exhibit important pharmaceutical and agrochemical activities, but remain difficult to handle genetically. To utilize their metabolic potential, heterologous expression methodologies are currently being developed.  The logic in the research was that if the secondary metabolites of could be combined into one organism and increase the production of these secondary metabolites. this experiment, the integration of the complete “myxothiazol biosynthetic gene cluster reconsitituted from two cosmids” from ''Stigmatella aurantiac''. Because of factors such as GC content and codon usuage of the genes, ''Myxococcus Xanthus'', was selected. The integration and expression of the myxothiazol genes results in the production of the secondary metabolites were comparable to the natural producer strain. (2)
<b>August 2007 - Chlamydophila psittaci genotype E/B transmission from African grey parrots to humans.</b>
</p><p>The third study explores <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> genotype E/B transmission from parrots to humans. The presence of <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> was examined in a parrot relief and breeding center. 5 of 20 African grey parrots showed depression, ruffled feathers, loss of weight and mild dyspnoea. The manager also showed signs of shortness of breath. <i>Chlamydophila psittaci</i> genotype E/B was identified as the transmitted strain. It is believed that this is the first genotype E/B strain transmitted from parrot to human. Studies reveal that inheritance of the genotype E/B strain, in both parrots and humans, cause no severe clinical symptoms.(12)
</p>
<a name="References"></a><h2><span class="editsection">[<a href="/index.php?title=Chlamydophila_psittaci&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span> <span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2>


<p>1. <a href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=176678" class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=176678" rel="nofollow">Everett, K., Hatch, T. “Architecture of the Cell Envelope of Chlamydia psittaci 6BC.” <i>Journal of Bacteriology</i>. 1995. Volume 177. No. 4. p. 877-882.</a>
3) The unique ability of ''Stigmatella aurantiac'' to undergo a multi-cellular cycle of development to form a fruiting body has perked the research of many people. To analyze the gene responsible for this transformation, mutants defective in fruiting body formation have been induced by transposon mutagenesis using aTn5-derived transposon. This inactivates both the fbfB and fbFA genes which are both responsible for fruiting bodies. Inactivation of fbfA leads to cells that can only form structured clumps. (3) (8)
</p><p>2. <a href="http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/13/7/1108.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.cdc.gov/eid/content/13/7/1108.htm" rel="nofollow">Vanrompay, D., Harkinezhad, T., Walle M., Beeckman D., Droogenbroeck, C., Verminnen, K., Leten, R., Martel, A., Cauwerts K. “Chlamydophila psittaci Transmission from Pet Birds to Humans.” <i>Emerging Infectious Diseases</i>. 2007. Volume 13. p.1108-1110</a> 
</p><p>3. <a href="http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic1951.htm" class="external text" title="http://www.emedicine.com/med/topic1951.htm" rel="nofollow">Lessnau, K., Arjomand F., “Psittacosis” 2006 May</a>
</p><p>4. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&amp;id=331636&amp;lvl=3&amp;lin=f&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock" class="external free" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&amp;id=331636&amp;lvl=3&amp;lin=f&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock" rel="nofollow">http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&amp;id=331636&amp;lvl=3&amp;lin=f&amp;keep=1&amp;srchmode=1&amp;unlock</a>


</p><p>5. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=genome&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;dopt=Overview&amp;list_uids=15217" class="external text" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=genome&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;dopt=Overview&amp;list_uids=15217" rel="nofollow">Chlamydophila psittaci plasmid pCpA1, complete sequence</a>
==References==
</p><p>6. Lederberg, J., “Encyclopedia of Microbiology Second Edition A-C.” 2000. Volume 1. p. 781-787.
</p><p>7. Singleton, P., Saisbury, D. “Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology 3rd Edition.” 2001. p 154.
</p><p>8. <a href="http://iai.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/66/11/5202" class="external text" title="http://iai.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/66/11/5202" rel="nofollow">Wyllie, S., Asley, R., Longbottom, D., Herring, A., “The Major Outer Membrane Protein of Chlamydophila psittaci Functions as a Porin-like Ion Channel.” 1998. Volume 66. No. 11. p. 5202-5207.</a>
</p><p>9. <a href="http://iai.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/69/4/2428" class="external text" title="http://iai.asm.org/cgi/content/abstract/69/4/2428" rel="nofollow">Tanzer, R., Longbottom, D., Hatch, T., “Identification of Polymorphic Outer Membrane Proteins of Chlamydia psittaci 6BC" <i>Infection and Immunity</i>. 2001. Vol. 69. No. 4. p. 2428-2434. </a>
</p><p>10. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;TermToSearch=17640776&amp;ordinalpos=5&amp;itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum" class="external text" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;TermToSearch=17640776&amp;ordinalpos=5&amp;itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum" rel="nofollow">Zhou, J., Qiu., C., Cao, XA, Lin G., “Construction and immunogenicity of recombinant adenovirus expressing the major outer membrane protein (MOMP) of Chlamydophila psittaci in chicks.” 2007</a>
</p><p>11. <a href="http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&amp;doi=10.1637%2F0005-2086(2007)051%5B0008%3ACAACPC%5D2.0.CO%3B2" class="external text" title="http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&amp;doi=10.1637%2F0005-2086(2007)051%5B0008%3ACAACPC%5D2.0.CO%3B2" rel="nofollow">Schenker, OA, Hoop, RK. “Chlamydiae and atherosclerosis: can psittacine cases support the link? 2007</a>


</p><p>12. <a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;TermToSearch=17644718&amp;ordinalpos=4&amp;itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum" class="external text" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?Db=pubmed&amp;Cmd=ShowDetailView&amp;TermToSearch=17644718&amp;ordinalpos=4&amp;itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum" rel="nofollow">Harkinezhad, T., Verminnen, K., Droogenbroeck, C., Vanrompay, D., “Chlamydophila psittaci genotype E/B transmission from African grey parrots to humans.” 2007</a>
1. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=genomeprj&orig_db=&term=Stigmatella%20aurantiaca&cmd=search NCBI Stigmatella aurantiaca]
</p><p>13. <a href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=204916" class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=204916" rel="nofollow">McClarty, G., Qin, B., "Pyrimidine metabolism by intracellular Chlamydia psittaci." <i>Journal of Bacteriology</i>. 1993. Volume 175. No. 15. p. 4652-4661.</a>
</p><p>14. <a href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=204917" class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&amp;artid=204917" rel="nofollow">McClarty, G., Fan, H., "Purine metabolism by intracellular Chlamydia psittaci." <i>Journal of Bacteriology</i>. 1993. Volume 175. No. 15. P. 4662-4669.</a>
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8. [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=249776 Hans Reichenbach, Herbert Voelz, and Martin Dworkin "''Structural Changes in Stigmatella aurantiaca During Myxospore Induction". J Bacteriol. 1969 February; 97(2): 905–911. .]
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A Microbial Biorealm page on the genus Stigmatella aurantica

Classification

Higher order taxa

Bacteria; Proteobacteria; Deltaproteobacteria; Myxococcales; Cystobacterineae; Cystobacteraceae; Stigmatella (1)

Species

NCBI: Taxonomy

Stigmatella aurantica

Description and significance

Stigmatella aurantiac is a member of myxovbacteria, which are known to have complex development and differtiating life cycles, including one as individual organism and one in a group.(1) Myxovbacteria also have a unique ability to aggregate and move as a population has the food source becomes scarce. Single cells can be motile by “adventurous motility” and seek other Stigmatella aurantiac . As cell density increases, the organism switches to “social motility” of cells can gather together into masses termed fruiting bodies that may consist of up to 100,000 cells. (1) There is a physical and metabolic change when Stigmatella aurantiac form fruiting bodies. Through chemical signals between cells, the Stigmatella aurantiac develop fruiting bodies almost as a multi-cellular organism, including specialized cells and differentiation of cellular structure according to position. (1)

Stigmatella aurantiac is a rod shaped gram negative bacterium. They are terrestrial organisms that are commonly found on rotting wood and bark.(1) As a mesophile, they grow in moderate temperatures (between 25-40 degrees Celsius). Their ability to move as a fruiting body was a well researched topic, and led to a deeper understanding of cell to cell communication and signals. Stigmatella aurantiac also produce antimicrobial compounds, such as aurafuron A and stigmatellin, which may beimportant as anti cancer agents and to produce new antibodies. (4)

Genome structure

Stigmatella aurantiac has a circular chromosome that consists of 10.2654 million base pairs with a GC content of 67.4% and 43 pseudo genes. The chromosome is composed of DNA and codes for 8543 proteins.(1) The gene fbfA is responsible for the fruiting body formation, allowing the structural and metabolic changes needed to form the myxospores. In experiments where the fbFA gene was deactivated, the bacterium formed structured clumps instead of fruiting bodies. (6) The genome also produces antimicrobial compounds that can kill and lyse other microbes. This has peaked the interests of many because of the compounds potential as anti cancer agents and antibodies. (4)

Cell structure and metabolism

Stigmatella aurantica has two distinct bodies. The vegetative cells of Stigmatella aurantica are flexible, slender rods that are 5 to 8 um long and .7 and .8 wide. The fine structure resembles that of other gram negative bacteria. The cell wall is composed of a cytolplasmic membrane with a triple layered organization and a cell wall. The cell wall consists of an outer triple layer and third dense monolayer in the periplasm. (3)

The myxospores of Stigmatella aurantica are short, fat, rods that are 1.5 to 3.5 um in length and 1.1 to 1.8 um in width. There are three distinct changes that occur between these two physical states: the formation of large amounts of granules; the formation of a capsule; and heavy folding of the outer third layer of the cell wall. The triple layer of the cell wall formed tight packs of either lamellar or vesicular organization. The change in the cell shape takes place within 10 to 15 minutes, and the fruiting body formation requires many hours during which time the cell can change its metabolism and regulate changes in the cell wall structure much more efficiently. (3)

Stigmatella aurantica are aerobic organisms and therefore require oxygen to produce energy. Stigmatella aurantica has two food sources, decomposing wood and other microbes.. They can produce electron transport inhibitors, such as myxothiazol, the dawenols, themyxochromides, and iron chelators myxochelin A and B. These compounds can kill and lyse on microbial cell.(7)

Ecology

Stigmatella aurantica are found on rotting wood and soil. They are capable of breaking down an wide selection of peptidoglycans, polysaccharides, proteins and other cellular detritus. They appear in nature to help decompose otherwise insoluble biological debris. Stigmatella aurantica is also speculated to consume other microbes. Stigmatella aurantica can produce a variety of compounds that can kill and lyse microbial cells. By producing these antimicrobial compounds, Stigmatella aurantica maintains the balance of microbial population in the soil. (7)

Pathology

Stigmatella aurantica is not a pathogen.

Application to Biotechnology

Natural secondary metabolites have been the hot topic of research to find new compounds as antibodies and anti cancer agents. The secondary metabolites hold a lot of potential as an anti cancer agents

Current Research

1) Recent research has been conducted where a new antibiotic polyketides, aurafuron A and B, were isolated from culture extracts of Stigmatella aurantic. The strains DW4/3-1 and Sg a15 were taken for their secondary metabolites. DW4/3-1 produces the electron inhibitor myxothiazol, the dawenols, the myxochromides and theiron chelators myxochelin A and B. In the Sg a15, 5 different groups ofmetabolites were discovered. These were inhibitors of the eukaryotic electron transport: the aurachins, stigmatellins, myxochelins, myxalamids and small amounts of myxochromids. In addition to the strains of Stigmatella aurantica, the new compounds, aurafuron A and B, were also isolated from a strain of the genus Archanguim. Both Aurafuron A and B were seen to inhibit the growth of filamentous fungi. Also Aurafuron B weakly active against a few Gram-positive bacteria. Both compounds were seen to be cytotoxic. (4)

2) Secondary metabolites of myxobacteria that have been isolated, exhibit important pharmaceutical and agrochemical activities, but remain difficult to handle genetically. To utilize their metabolic potential, heterologous expression methodologies are currently being developed. The logic in the research was that if the secondary metabolites of could be combined into one organism and increase the production of these secondary metabolites. this experiment, the integration of the complete “myxothiazol biosynthetic gene cluster reconsitituted from two cosmids” from Stigmatella aurantiac. Because of factors such as GC content and codon usuage of the genes, Myxococcus Xanthus, was selected. The integration and expression of the myxothiazol genes results in the production of the secondary metabolites were comparable to the natural producer strain. (2)

3) The unique ability of Stigmatella aurantiac to undergo a multi-cellular cycle of development to form a fruiting body has perked the research of many people. To analyze the gene responsible for this transformation, mutants defective in fruiting body formation have been induced by transposon mutagenesis using aTn5-derived transposon. This inactivates both the fbfB and fbFA genes which are both responsible for fruiting bodies. Inactivation of fbfA leads to cells that can only form structured clumps. (3) (8)

References

1. NCBI Stigmatella aurantiaca


2. Perlova O, Fu J, Kuhlmann S, Krug D, Stewart AF, Zhang Y, Müller R. "Reconstitution of the myxothiazol biosynthetic gene cluster by Red/ET recombination and heterologous expression in Myxococcus xanthus.". Applied and Environmental Microbiology, December 2006, p. 7485-7494, Vol. 72, No. 12


3. Herbert Voelza and Hans Reichenbach1b "Fine Structure of Fruiting Bodies of Stigmatella aurantiaca (Myxobacterales) International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. J Bacteriol. 1969 September; 99(3): 856–866.


4. Brigitte Kunze, Hans Reichenbach, Rolf Müller, Gerhard Höfle "'Aurafuron A and B, New Bioactive Polyketides from Stigmatella aurantiaca and Archangium gephyra (Myxobacteria)International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. The Journal of AntibioticsVol. 58 (2005) , No. 4 pp.244-251


5. TBarbara SilakowskiDagger , Hans Ulrich Schairer§, Heidi Ehret§, Brigitte KunzeDagger , Stefan WeinigDagger , Gabriele NordsiekDagger , Petra BrandtDagger , Helmut BlöckerDagger , Gerhard HöfleDagger , Stefan BeyerDagger , and Rolf Müller " New Lessons for Combinatorial Biosynthesis from Myxobacteria ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. J Biol Chem, Vol. 274, Issue 52, 37391-37399, December 24, 1999


6. Barbra Silakowski, Andreas Pospiech, Bjo'rn Neumann, Hans Ulrich Schairer"Stigmatella aurantiaca Fruiting Body Formation Is Dependenton the fbfA Gene Encoding a Polypeptide Homologous to Chitin Synthases". JOURNAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, Dec. 1996, Volume 178 p. 6706–6713.


7. Martin Dworkin "'Recent Advances in the Social and Developmental Biology of the Myxobacteria'. MICROBIOLOGICAL REVIEWS, Mar. 1996, p. 70–102]


8. Hans Reichenbach, Herbert Voelz, and Martin Dworkin "Structural Changes in Stigmatella aurantiaca During Myxospore Induction". J Bacteriol. 1969 February; 97(2): 905–911. .

Edited by student of John Lee

Edited by KLB