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Skin Microbes and Body Odor:
Granulicatella adiacens
Gen Barlow, Melissa DellaTorre, Casey Correa, Ellie Moore


History of Body Odor:
Lilian Sool-Esol
The human body is heavily scented and is constantly reminding us of our link with the natural world. In Europe in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries many different perfumes, scented herbs, pot pourri of dried flower petals, and fragrant woods were spread, crushed, daubed, burned, and sprinkled in a hopeless attempt to rid the plague from the air and our bodies (Stoddart, 1990). People were terrified of the plague during this time and believed that every breath they took would infect them unless the breath had a bit of sweetness or nice scent to it. Then, they felt, the scent would kill the plague (Stoddart, 1990). For many centuries doctors would wear long leather coats covered in honey-scented beeswax in order to protect them from disease (The Scented Ape). English judges would carry sweet- smelling herbs with them when they visited prisoners in jail in an attempt to fight off jail fever, which is now known as typhus (Stoddart, 1990).
MicrobeWiki
Prof. Angela Hahn
16 December, 2013
                    Granulicatella adiacens


Social Status:
In 1961, Frenkel and Hirsch were the first to describe the Granulicatella bacteria genus as a nutritionally variant streptococcus (NVS) (Christensen et al., 2001). The Granulicatella genus is known to be a normal flora of the upper respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts of humans. Normal flora is a microorganism that normally resides at a given site and under normal circumstances does not cause disease. Granulicatella adiacens whose genus name was formerly known as Abiotrophia because the bacteria genus is believed to be nutritionally deficient and even when samples are strained in the laboratory, a supplemented media with rich agar is used to culture samples of these bacteria. The word “Abiotrophia” means life nutrition deficiency (Bizzarro et al., 2011). Granulicatella adiacens, a species of this genus is found in the oral cavity, intestine and genitourinary tract of humans (Vandana et al., 2010).  Infections in these areas lead to endovascular, central nervous system, ocular, oral bone and joint and urogenital tracts infections. It is also associated with diseases like endocarditis, bacteremia and septic arthritis (Bizzarro et al., 2011). The G. adiacens has a normal commensal relationship with most the human mucosal surfaces which allows it to affect those areas of the human body and although it has the possibilities of infecting all these areas, it rarely causes diseases (Gardenier et al., 2011).  
Throughout history, body odor has been associated with low social status. During the last decade of the middle ages, only wealthy people, such as landlords, had access to baths because they had the means to hire servants to fill up and heat their baths, a labor-intensive chore. Most other people never bathed and wore the same set of clothes for months on end (Stoddart, 1990). However, during the seventeenth century, when Louis XIII and Louis XIV were in power, cleanliness became a matter of appearance. White powder was rubbed into collars, cuffs, and bands, and wigs were powdered to cover up their smell. Rather than washing clothes, a lot of perfume was worn in order to cover up the stench caused by natural body odor (Stoddart, 1990). So, throughout history, scents were used, first, in order to fight off disease, and then, in order to depict social status as well as enhance appearance.  


Function of Body Odor:
G. adiacens bacteria are gram positive with streptococcus morphology. Sometimes it appears as cocci, coccobacilli or rod shaped cells. The cellular morphology depends on growth conditions. Their sizes range from 0.4 to 0.6 microns. G+C content of G. adiacens bacteria DNA is around 36.6 – 37.4 mol%. This bacteria is also known to be monophyletic. It is a facultative anaerobe which can survive in both aerobic and anaerobic environments with a temperature of about thirty seven (37) degrees Celsius (Collins MD et al., 2000).  
Body Odor serves many functions in our lives. Our body odor influences our mating preference, the relationships we form, and who we’re attracted to. Our mating preference and our odor are both driven by sexual selection and are influenced by highly polymorphic genes of the major histocompatibility complex polymorphisms (MHC) (Barrett, 2007). Studies have found that both males and females prefer MHC-dissimilar mates, whom they recognize by odor cues (Barrett, 2007). Humans also have a functional vomernasal organ, which is a chemical sensory system in mammals that is used to detect pheromones. This vomernasal organ influences women’s reproductive synchrony (Barrett, 2007).  
A Granulicatella genus bacterium is a fastidious microorganism; meaning, it has a complex nutritional requirement and can only grow in a specific diet of nutrients. Most fastidious microorganisms require blood or hemoglobin, amino acids and some vitamins to grow. These types of microorganisms are known to cause infections in humans and other organisms that have blood or hemoglobin. This makes its identification difficult because a unique culture media is required for the growth of isolates of G. adiacens. The type of media used to culture these fastidious bacteria in the laboratory is known as BD Chocolate Agar. The chocolate agar is supplemented with hemoglobin (blood) and yeast concentrate. There are two common types of chocolate agars used; the BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) and the BD Chocolate Agar (Blood Agar No. 2 Base). The GC II Agar with IsoVitalex base nutrients contains blood; casein; selected meat peptones as a source of nitrogen; phosphates, which helps to regulate pH; and corn starch which helps to neutralize toxic fatty acids that may be present in the agar. The Blood Agar base is sometimes used as a substitute. The Blood base agar contains blood, liver digest, Proteose peptone and yeast extract which serves as a source of nitrogen and other vitamins for the growth of the microbe that needs to be cultured. However, Granulicatella adiacens is plated on the BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) to reveal growth of nutritionally variant streptococci. Most laboratories use either horse or sheep blood as a source of hemoglobin. A way of identifying these bacteria is that when plated on a BD Chocolate Agar (Blood Agar No. 2 Base), it shows a very slow growth compare to BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) (Perkins et al., 2003 & “Instructions for Use – Ready-To-Use Plated Media." 2011).  
Body odor acts as a biological signal in two ways: individual recognition and indication of current state (Roberts, 2011).
1.    Individual recognition: studies have shown similarities in body odor among twins and other relatives, suggesting that body odor has a genetic basis. People are able to recognize their own body odor, the body odor of their partner, and the body odor of their relatives. Mothers and infants recognize each other’s body odors right away and are able to identify them throughout life. This may play a significant role in mother-infant attachment. Odor preference away from the family and towards non-family members develops during puberty and has been suggested to cause incest avoidance.  
2.    Indication of current state:
-Reproductive state: Women’s scent is the most potent during ovulation.
-Diet: Mice who were starved for twenty-four hours were unattractive to other mice. However, after these mice were fed, other mice began to find them attractive.  
-Health status: Those with diabetes tend to have a smell of acetone on their breath; infectious agents cause changes in body odor.  
-Affective state: Body odor changes, depending on emotional state whether it be anger, anxiety, frustration, or fright.
Even though body odor is meant to serve all of these different signaling functions in our lives, we have developed so much away from this signaling that our olfactory abilities have largely been lost (Roberts, 2011). However, people are still concerned about the way they smell. In Western culture, almost everyone can afford to use some kind of product to cover up their body odor, and most do, even though they shower often. In a poll taken, 79 % of women and 60% of men use deodorant every day and only 4% of women and 8% of men said they never use deodorant; 44% of women use perfume every day (Roberts, 2011). Studies have shown that men and women find themselves more attractive when they’re wearing deodorant or perfume, giving them more confidence and making them more attractive to others (Roberts, 2011).  


Causes of Body Odor:
Scientists find this bacteria genus difficult to identify because it also appears as a gram negative bacteria sometimes and it has a range of form of shapes in which it appears which makes it uneasy to diagnose patience suffering with infections or diseases from this microbe. On normal circumstance, clinical diseases caused by G. adiacens are identified based on their phenotypic character by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. (Collins MD et al., 2000).
Body odor, or B.O., or Brohidrosis typically becomes noticeable once a person hits puberty, usually 14-16 years of age in women and 15-17 in men. Body odor is often blamed on our sweat, but our sweat is not actually the direct cause of the odor. The odor itself actually results from the metabolizing of bacteria on the skin of different areas of the body. The bacterium breaks down the sweat into acids that cause the smell. We have two types of sweat glands, eccrine and apocrine glands. Sweat from eccrine glands is mostly made up of water and salt and is secreted to cool the body off when you overheat. Our apocrine glands are located in hair follicles, and produce a sweat containing proteins and fatty acids. A carbohydrate called sialomucin, which has an outer coating of sugar, is found in this sweat. This simple sugar coating is a prime target for bacteria to break down as a source of energy through fermentation or aerobic or anaerobic respiration. As the bacteria, unique to whichever body part on which they reside, break down the sugars, they reproduce rapidly and release the acids that produce the odor. So, no matter how healthy your skin is or how clean you are, your body is still home to thousands of different strains of bacteria that go through these processes and produce some kind of odor. Some suggest that the reason we perceive body odors negatively is because we have been conditioned socially to do so. Some odors produced by the processes aforementioned are inoffensive to us, and are unique to the individual, which is what allows certain animals, like dogs, to be able to identify humans individually.  


What Makes You Smell:
Taxonomy:
Things like food, age, gender, medications, etc. can affect each person’s individual odor. For example, some studies show that people who tend to eat red meat are more likely to have noticeable body odor than vegetarians. Also, eating spicy foods increased body temperature, causing the sweat glands to produce sweat and therefore may cause odor.  
Bacteria,
Body odor is most likely to occur on the feet, groin, genitals, armpits, belly button, and near body hair. It does occur in other areas of the skin, but it’s likely to be less noticeable or intense in these areas. The acids that are produced in these areas, the culprits for producing the smells, are commonly Propionic or Isovaleric acids. Propionic acid is found in sweat, and is processed by a type of bacteria found on sebaceous glands called Propionibacteria. Isovaleric acid is commonly found on feet, processed by the bacteria Staphylococcus epidermidis, which as we have learned is also found on some types of cheese. We typically think of feet being one of the main sources of odor on the body. Feet tend to smell because when people choose to wear shoes and socks, the perspiration cannot evaporate, and is contained within the sock. This gives the bacteria living on the feet more time and sweat to metabolize, and more time to multiply. Too much moisture on the feet also runs the risk of growing fungus, which may also contribute to the odor.
Firmicutes,
Bacilli,
Lacotabacillales,
Carnobacteriaceae,
Granulicatella,
Granulicatella adiacens.  
BIOS: Taxonomy (http://www.gbif.org/species/119570537)


The Genetics of Body Odor:
Below are links to pictures of G. adiacens culture growth of isolated colonies after two days of streaking each plate. We notice that there is a slower growth on the Blood base Agar. (Please Click on the links to view pictures)
Bromhidrosis is inherited genetically, and it is an autosomal dominant trait which means that if either one of the chromosomes carries the disease the person will have symptoms. If a person has the bromhidrosis gene, the amount that they sweat affects the amount of fat molecules secreted, which come from the apocrine glands. Since bacteria use the sweat from the apocrine glands as nutrients to grow, this causes a strong body odor. Without the bromhidrosis gene, no matter how much a person sweats they will not exhibit any bromhidrosis symptoms.
 
Genetics of bromhidrosis. This is a scenario of possible offspring if one parent has a gene for bromhidrosis.
Sample of G. adiacens growth in BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex)
(http://hampc168.blog.163.com/blog/static/1697976200701910515808/)
 
BD Chocolate Agar (Blood Agar No. 2 Base) showing slow rate of G. adiacens growth
(http://hampc168.blog.163.com/blog/static/1697976200701910515808/)
A case of an infected endocarditis
(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Haemophilus_parainfluenzae_Endocarditis_PHIL_851_lores.jpg)


East Asians are much less susceptible to excessive sweating and body odor because they have fewer apocrine sweat glands compared to people of other descents. This reduction in body odor and sweating is due to their adaptation to colder climates.
One condition that may contribute to bromhidrosis is hyperhidrosis. Hyperhidrosis is a genetic medical condition where the eccrine sweat glands are overactive, so a person sweats excessively and even when temperatures are cold, or when they are resting. This unpredictable sweating can lead to major discomfort physically and emotionally. Further studies must be done on this condition to prove whether hyperhidrosis encourages a more severe case of bromhidrosis or if it actually helps to prevent it. Some researchers suspect that the excessive eccrine sweat glands trigger the apocrine sweat glands to also become overactive, while some researchers suspect that the odorless sweat from eccrine glands can help wash out the smelly sweat from the apocrine glands. This condition affects 2-3% of the population, and can be inherited as an autosomal dominant genetic trait.


Another cause of body odor is trimethylaminuria (TMAU). TMAU is a genetic disorder causing a smelly fish body odor. This condition is caused by an inability to properly metabolize trimethylamine (TMA), allowing it to build up in their body. The buildup in trimethylamine exudes a fishy stench through the person’s breath, saliva, sweat, and urine.  Most commonly this condition comes from a mutation in a person’s FMO3 gene. This gene provides the instruction to make an enzyme that breaks down trimethylamine. Trimethylamine is produced by bacteria in the intestine when they help to digest proteins from several sources such as liver, most seafood, soybeans, eggs, and some others. This is a recessive trait, so there must be a mutation in both copies of the FMO3 gene to result in a severe case of TMAU. However, a mutated FMO3 in just one copy of the gene can cause a reduced amount of this enzyme to be produced, causing trimethylamine to slightly build up in the body which creates a mild case or temporary episodes of TMAU.  Without the mutation to FMO3, the enzyme is able to convert fishy-smelling trimethylamine into a different molecule that has no odor.


Another cause of TMAU comes from a compound known as indole-3-carbinol. This compound blocks the function of the enzyme system that breaks down trimethylamine. It is found in broccoli, leafy greens and other green vegetables.
TMAU can be treated through changes to the diet or with antibiotics. Without eating food that contains indole-3-carbinol, or any foods that are digested by the bacteria that create trimethylamine, there will be no build-up of it in the body and therefore no odor will be emitted. Antibiotics can also be taken to combat the bacteria in the gut that are producing trimethylamine. One last way this genetic disorder can be treated is to use soap with a pH between 5.5 and 6.5, which is lower than common brands of soap. Since trimethylamine is a strong base with a pH of 9.8, soaps that have a pH similar to skin (which is about 5.5), can help retain the secreted trimethylamine in a form that can be removed by washing. An estimated 1 to 11 percent of the population has this disorder.


Treatments and Drugs for Body Odor:
Deodorants and Antiperspirants
There are two drugs that are commonly used to help fight body odor but they differ in one specific detail that one helps prevent sweating while the other just attempts to help eliminate the bad odor when we do sweat.  The first drug is something called an antiperspirant that contains aluminum-based compounds that temporarily block the sweat pore, thereby reducing the amount of perspiration that reaches your skin.  Therefore, this drug stops people from sweating.  The other over-the-counter drug that can help with body odor is a product called deodorant.  Deodorants can eliminate or neutralize odor but not perspiration.  They are usually alcohol-based and turn your skin acidic, making it less attractive to bacteria.  Deodorants often contain perfume fragrances that are intended to mask the odor of perspiration and are used on the hands and feet as well as the underarms.


If the over-the-counter antiperspirants don’t help control your sweating, your doctor may prescribe aluminum chloride which can be found in products called Drysol and Xerac Ac.  These are stronger antiperspirants and they try harder to prohibit excess sweating than the over-the counter choices. Doctors also suggest, for the best results, to apply the antiperspirant at night to the areas most prone to sweating which is most commonly the underarm area.  These stronger prescriptions do have some side effects that include red, swollen, and itchy skin much like a rash.


Organic Options
There are ways to neutralize your body odor without man-made chemicals.  The move towards more organic solutions has also made its way into the world of health and beauty.  Most department stores and grocery stores now have organic deodorant available for a more expensive price than their man-made counterparts.  Other less expensive ways to help neutralize odor can be by simply changing your diet.  Eating less junk foods or highly processed meats can help you smell less.  Eliminating other pungent foods like garlic or onion that will create an equally pungent smell from your diet will also help your sweat smell less. 
Other foods that can supplement your diet that will also help neutralize body odor. Apple Cider vinegar has cleansings properties which can help eliminate body odor despite its own strong aroma.  Drinking about one tablespoon two or three times a day is enough to cleanse most bodies.  Tea is also used to cleanse the body, eliminates odor, is delicious, and provides many health benefits.  Drinking a cup of sage tea can help reduce body odor. 


The most potent purifying tea of all is called Kombucha which is a fermented Chinese tea with an abundance of probiotics and “system purifiers.”  Kombucha is a living health drink made by fermenting tea and sugar with a Kombucha culture.  The result can taste like something between sparkling apple cider and champagne, depending on what tea is used.  Kombucha culture looks like a beige or white rubbery pancake and is often called “scoby” which “stands for symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast.”  The culture is placed in sweetened black or green team and turns a bowl full of sweet tea into a bowl full of vitamins, minerals, enzymes and health-giving organic acids.  It is thought to have originated in the Far East, specifically China, and has been consumed for at least two thousand years.  The first recorded use of Kombucha comes from China in 221 BC during the Tsin Dynasty and is known as “The Tea of Immortality.”


Applying baking soda to the armpit or feet will also help neutralize odor.  It is inexpensive and can be conveniently found in most pantries.  It is also recommended that instead of taking a shower you in fact take a bath with a couple drops of rose water.  It is relaxing and soaking in the essential oil will create a longer-lasting neutralization of body odor than baking soda.
References:
References:


Barrett, L. (2007). The oxford handbook of evolutionary psychology. New York,NY: Oxford University Press.
Christensen JJ, Facklam RR. 2001. Granulicatella and Abiotrophia species from Human Clinical Specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39(10): 3520-3523 http://jcm.asm.org/content/39/10/3520.full


Courtade, Brandy. (2012). Natural Remedies for Fighting Body Odor Internally and
Bizzarro MJ, Callan DA, Farrel PA, Dembry L-M, Gallagher      PG. 2011. Granulicatella Adiacens and    Early-Onset Sepsis in Neonate. Emrg Infect Dis 17(10): 1971-1973
Externally. Retrieved from http://www.dailyglow.com/natural-remedies-for- fighting-body-odor-internally-and-externally.html
http://jmm.sgmjournals.org/content/61/Pt_6/755.full


Hugat, J. L. (2011, September 02). Unexplained body odor may stem from rare genetic disorder. Retrieved from http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/the-checkup/post/unexplained-body-odor-may-stem-from-rare-genetic-disorder/2010/12/20/gIQAh4MMvJ_blog.html
Vandana KE, Mukhopadhyay C, Rau NR, Ajith V, Rajath P. 2010. Native Valve Endocarditis and Femoral Emolism due to Granulicatella Adiacens: A Rare Case Report. Braz J Infect Dis 14(6) http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-86702010000600015


Manning, N. (2012). What is TMAU?. Retrieved from http://tmau.org.uk/index.php/79-
Perkins A, Osorio S, Serrano O, Del Ray MC, Sarria C, Domingo D, Lopez-Brea M. 2003. A Case of Endocarditis due to Granulicatella adiacens. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 9(6): 576-577 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1469-0691.2003.00646.x/full
tmau-frontpage-cat/73-what-is-tmau


Mayo Clinic Staff. (2011, August 2). Treatments and Drugs. Retrieved from
Gardenier JC , Hranjec T, Sawyer RG, Bonatti H. 2011. Granulicatella Adiacens Bacteremia in an Elderly Trauma Patient. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 12(3): 251-3
http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/sweating-and-body-odor/ds00305/dsection=treatments-and-drugs
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21524203


Neo Gene Lab. (2012). Gene test and Research Center: Bromhidrosis in General.
Collins MD, Lawson PA. 2000. The Genus Abiotrophia (Kawamura et al.) is not Monophyletic: Proposal of Granulicatella gen. nov., Granulicatella adiacens comb. nov., Granulicatella Elegans comb. nov. and Granulicatella Balaenopterae comb. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 50:365-369
Retrieved from http://neogenelab.com/cd_news.aspx?c=8
http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/content/50/1/365.full.pdf


Nordqvist, C. (n.d.). What Is Body Odor (B.O.)? What Causes Body Odor?. Medical
Collins MD, Lawson PA. 2000: Granulicatella adiacens (Bouvet et al., 1989) BIOS:Baceteriology Insight Orienting System in the Catalogue of Life in The Catalogue of Life Partnership: Catalogue of Life.
News Today: Health News. Retrieved May 8, 2012, from
http://www.gbif.org/species/119570537
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/artic


Roberts, C. (2011). Applied evolutionary psychology. Oxford Scholarship Online. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199586073.001.0001/acprof-9780199586073-chapter-0020
“Instructions for Use – Ready-To-Use Plated Media." Bd.com. Becton Dickinson, Sept. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2013.
http://www.bd.com/resource.aspx?IDX=8994


Stoddart, D. M. (1990). The scented ape: The biology and culture of human odour. New York, NY: The Press Syndicate of the University of Cambridge.
== Oenococcus kitaharae ==


Wingfield, R. (2012, January 17). Bromhidrosis. Retrieved from http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/1072342-overview#showall
Samantha Hosch
 
December 16,2013
 
Microbiology
 
Dr. Hahn
 
 
Lineage
 
• Kingdom- Bacteria
 
• Division- firmicutes
 
• Class- Bacilli
 
• Family- Lactobacillus
 
• Genius- Oenococcus
 
• Species- Kitaharae
 
 
 
No picture available
 
Basic
 
Oenococcus kitaharae is a bacteria microbe that is gram positive. It can make acid from maltose. It also helps with D-glucose fermentation. Oenococcus kitaharae is made up 42 percent guanine cytosine bonds according too Lactobacillus florum sp. nov., a fructophilic species isolated from flowers by Endo, Futagawa-Endo, Sakamoto, Kitahara, and Dicks.
 
It does not have the mutSL gene, which fixes some mutations and is believed by scenticsts  to have not had this gene for a long time. According to the article Role of Hypermutability in the evolution of the genus Oenococcus kitaharae has a rate of 1/13 protein mutation and that most of it its mutations are random ones without any real meaning.
 
Oenococcus kitaharae can be grown in the lab and cultured but it does take it own time to do so, for to five days longer than most similar bacteria.
 
O. kitaharae can not break down anything made of  organic acids but is lactic acid loving bacteria microbe. This explains why it was in shochu residue and not wine.
 
 
History
 
Oenococcus kitaharae was discovered in 2006. It is currently the second member of only a two-member genus. Its genus partner is Oenococcus onei, which has been renamed.
 
 
Information
 
The Oenococcus genus is known for their ability to be involved with fermentation for this reason and the fact that it is present in wine the genus is studied often. However onei and kitaharae have different living environments but can have crossovers, this has been shown through PCR reactions from wine samples.
Some sources show that O. kitaharae can cause fermentation in some of O. onei environments well other show that it does just want it needs to stay a live.
No matter what there is no disagreement on the fact the fact that they can be found together.
 
Oenococcus kitaharae is much able to survive in difficult environment. Apparently, It has more DNA in the Oenococcus kitaharae. The extra pieces of DNA resemble that of a virus according an article titled Comparative Genomics of Oenococcus kitaharae. It is found in Japan in several things including flowers.
 
 
 
Sources
 
Borneman, A. R., McCarthy, J. M., Chambers, P. J., & Bartowsky, E. J. (2012). Functional divergence in the genus oenococcus as predicted by genome sequencing of the newly- described species, oenococcus kitaharae. PLoS One, 7(1), e29626. doi: 10.137
 
Endo, A., Futagawa-Endo, Y., Sakamoto, M., Kitahara, M., & Dicks, D. M. T. (2010). Lactobacillus florum sp. nov., a fructophilic species isolated from flowers. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 60, 2478–2482. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.019067-0
 
Endo, A., & Okada, S. (2006). Oenococcus kitaharae sp. nov., a non-acidophilic and non-    malolactic-fermenting oenococcus isolated from a composting distilled shochu residue. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, (56), 2345-2348. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.64288-0
Gonzalez-Arenzana, L., Lopez, R., Santamaría, P., & Lopez-Alfaro, I. (2013). Dynamics of lactic acid bacteria populations in rioja wines by pcr-dgge comparison with culture-dependent methods . Appl Microbial Biotechnol, (97), 6931-6941. doi: 10.1007/s00253-013-4974-y
Marcobal, A. M., Sela , D. A., Wolf, Y. I., Makarova, K. S., & Mills, D. A. (2008). Role of hypermutability in the evolution of the genus oenococcus. Journal Of Bacteriology, 190(2), 564-570. doi: 10.1128/JB.01457-07
 
Michlmayr, H., Schümann, C., Wurbs, P., arreira Braz da Silva, N. M., Rogl, V., Kulbe, K. D., & del Hierro, A. M. (2010). A β-glucosidase from oenococcus oeni atcc baa-1163 with potential for aroma release in wine: Cloning and expression in e. coli. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 26(7), 1281-1289. doi: 10.1007/s11274-009-0299-5
 
== Pseudomonas fluorescens ==
 
Pseudomonas fluorescens Microbe Wiki
 
Classification
Kingdom: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Gammaproteobacteria
Order: Pseudomonadales
Family: Pseudomonadaceae
Genus: Pseudomonas
Species: P. fluorescens
 
Habitat Information:
The soil organism was collected in the front yard of an Austin, TX home on January 26, 2018.
Soil was a little moist
Picked up on a day that had 83% humidity
Zero rainfall
Calm wind
51℉ air temperature.
 
Pseudomonas fluorescens is mainly found in plants, soil, and water surfaces.
 
Description and Significance:
Pseudomonas fluorescens are gram-negative bacilli shaped bacteria. It grows best in temperatures that are 25-30℃. Certain strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens have been found to help stop plant disease by protecting the root and seed from fungal infection[REF]. Other strains contribute to plant growth. Due to P. fluorescens having different flagella it has different strains which cause it to be in different environments including the bloodstream. [REF]
 
Cell Structure, Metabolism, and Life Cycle:
Cell Structure
 
P. fluorescens are small-to-medium sized Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacilli. They are often found with multiple flagella in a lophotrichous arrangement. These many flagella, along with its ability to generate a biofilm, make P. fluorescens a great colonizer on various different surfaces and in different hosts and able to easily adapt to its environment[REF]. One particularly prominent role of this biofilm is to serve as a protective agents to plants against parasitic fungi. Less is known about how P. fluorescens’ structure allows it to bind to mammalian cells, however it has been known to adhere to red blood cells in humans, which is one reason it is believed that, when found as a pathogenic agent in humans (which is very rare), it is almost always in the bloodstream. This organism follows a similar life cycle pattern found with other biofilm generating species, as discussed in “Life Cycle” [REF].
 
Metabolism
P. fluorescens is well-known for having an extensive variety of metabolic capabilities, which allows it to live in so many different environments such as on the surfaces of plants, in soil, in the rhizosphere, and even in the bloodstream of humans and other animals[REF].
 
P. fluorescens is a obligate aerobe, however, it has a unique ability to use nitrate (NO3) instead of atmospheric oxygen (O2) as its final electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain [REF]
 
A unique metabolic feature of P. fluorescens is that it secretes a fluorescent pigment, pyoverdine, which imparts fluorescent properties to the organism under UV light, which is what led to its name. Pyoverdine is a high-affinity iron-chelating molecule that is essential for the organism’s acquisition of iron from the environment and used for bacterial growth. [REF]
See more in “Physiology” for biochemical tests conducted in class.
 
Life Cycle
P. fluorescens follows a typical “biofilm” life cycle in that generally proceeds as follows:
Attachment: planktonic cells adhere to a surface and become sessile
Growth: cells exude exoenzymes and proteins to create a protective biofilm in which to flourish and grow.
Detachment: individual cells or clusters of cells will detach from the biofilm in order to move and colonize new surfaces/hosts
 
Genome Structure
P. fluorescens’ genome is composed of a single, circular chromosome with a median length of 6,300,000 base pairs. Guanine and Cytosine make up 60.3% of the nucleotides found in its DNA (its G/C ratio). [REF]
 
 
 
 
 
Physiology and Pathogenesis:
Physiology
 
Gelatin Hydrolysis: Negative
DNA Hydrolysis: Negative
Lipid Hydrolysis: Positive
Phenol Red Broth: No fermentation
Starch Hydrolysis: Negative
Casein Hydrolysis: Positive
Methyl Red: Negative
Voges-Proskauer: Negative
Citrate: Positive
SIM: Negative
Nitrate Reduction: Positive
Urea Hydrolysis: Negative
Triple Sugar Iron: No fermentation, does not reduce sulfur
Decarboxylation: Arginine is positive, lysine and ornithine are negative
Phenylalanine: Negative
Oxidase: Positive
EMB Agar: Positive
HE Agar: Negative
Catalase: Positive
Blood Agar: Positive
Mannitol Salts Agar: Negative
PEA Agar: Negative
 
Bile Esculin: Negative
6.5% Salt Tolerance: Negative
Kirby-Bauer Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test for disinfectants:
Kirby-Bauer Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for antibiotics: sensitive to several antibiotics [REF]
 
Pathophysiology
Although P. fluorescens itself is largely considered non-pathogenic, it contains a number of metabolic abilities to allow it to thrive in mammalian hosts, including, but not limited to:
Production of bioactive secondary metabolites
P. fluorescens produces a long list of secondary metabolites that allow it to successfully compete with other, similar organisms, such as phenazine, hydrogen cyanide, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), rhizoxin, and pyoluteorin. [REF]
Production of biofilms
As aforementioned, one of the key structural components of P. fluorescens is its ability to produce biofilms.
Type III secretions
Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are molecular, needle-like complexes that inject cellular products into the cells of its host/surface, known as effectors. The most common T3SS in P. fluorescens is the Hrp1 family[REF]. These “hypersensitive response” secretion systems trigger a hypersensitive response in resistant plants, but leads to infection in vulnerable plants. Less is known about T3SSs involved in this organism’s infections in mammals, but different strains have been found to adhere to human Red Blood Cells, as well as human glial cells in culture. [REF]
 
References
Ramette A, Moënne-Loccoz Y, Défago G, Prevalence of fluorescent pseudomonads producing antifungal phloroglucinols and/or hydrogen cyanide in soils naturally suppressive or conducive to tobacco black root rot. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2003 May 1; 44(1):35-43.
Gibaud M, Martin-Dupont P, Dominguez M, Laurentjoye P, Chassaing B, Leng B. Pseudomonas fluorescens septicemia following transfusion of contaminated blood.
Presse Med. 1984 Nov 24; 13(42):2583-4.
Scales BS, Dickson RP, LiPuma JJ, Huffnagle GB. 2014. Microbiology, genomics, and clinical significance of the Pseudomonas fluorescens species complex, an unappreciated colonizer of humans. Clin Microbiol Rev 27:927–948. doi:10.1128/CMR.00044-14.
Hernández-Salmerón JE, et al. Draft Genome Sequence of the Biocontrol and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens strain UM270. Stand Genomic Sci 2016
Ghiglione JF, Gourbiere F, Potier P, Philippot L, Lensi R. Role of respiratory nitrate reductase in ability of Pseudomonas fluorescens YT101 to colonize the rhizosphere of maize. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2000;66(9):4012–4016. Doi: 10.1128/AEM.66.9.4012-4016.2000
Hohnadel D, Meyer JM. Specificity of pyoverdine-mediated iron uptake among fluorescent Pseudomonas strains. J Bacteriol. 1988 Oct; 170(10):4865-73.
Baum MM, Kainović A, O'Keeffe T, Pandita R, McDonald K, Wu S, Webster P. Characterization of structures in biofilms formed by a Pseudomonas fluorescens isolated from soil. BMC Microbiol. 2009 May 21; 9():103
Adebusuyi AA, Foght JM. An alternative physiological role for the EmhABC efflux pump in Pseudomonas fluorescens cLP6a. BMC Microbiol. 2011;11:252. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-11-252. [Online.]
Preston GM, Bertrand N, Rainey PB. Type III secretion in plant growth-promoting Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25.
Mol Microbiol. 2001 Sep; 41(5):999-1014.
Chapalain A, Rossignol G, Lesouhaitier O, Merieau A, Gruffaz C, Guerillon J, Meyer JM, Orange N, Feuilloley MG. Comparative study of 7 fluorescent pseudomonad clinical isolates.Can J Microbiol. 2008 Jan; 54(1):19-27.

Revision as of 18:22, 4 May 2018

Granulicatella adiacens

Lilian Sool-Esol MicrobeWiki Prof. Angela Hahn 16 December, 2013

                   Granulicatella adiacens

In 1961, Frenkel and Hirsch were the first to describe the Granulicatella bacteria genus as a nutritionally variant streptococcus (NVS) (Christensen et al., 2001). The Granulicatella genus is known to be a normal flora of the upper respiratory, gastrointestinal and urogenital tracts of humans. Normal flora is a microorganism that normally resides at a given site and under normal circumstances does not cause disease. Granulicatella adiacens whose genus name was formerly known as Abiotrophia because the bacteria genus is believed to be nutritionally deficient and even when samples are strained in the laboratory, a supplemented media with rich agar is used to culture samples of these bacteria. The word “Abiotrophia” means life nutrition deficiency (Bizzarro et al., 2011). Granulicatella adiacens, a species of this genus is found in the oral cavity, intestine and genitourinary tract of humans (Vandana et al., 2010). Infections in these areas lead to endovascular, central nervous system, ocular, oral bone and joint and urogenital tracts infections. It is also associated with diseases like endocarditis, bacteremia and septic arthritis (Bizzarro et al., 2011). The G. adiacens has a normal commensal relationship with most the human mucosal surfaces which allows it to affect those areas of the human body and although it has the possibilities of infecting all these areas, it rarely causes diseases (Gardenier et al., 2011).

G. adiacens bacteria are gram positive with streptococcus morphology. Sometimes it appears as cocci, coccobacilli or rod shaped cells. The cellular morphology depends on growth conditions. Their sizes range from 0.4 to 0.6 microns. G+C content of G. adiacens bacteria DNA is around 36.6 – 37.4 mol%. This bacteria is also known to be monophyletic. It is a facultative anaerobe which can survive in both aerobic and anaerobic environments with a temperature of about thirty seven (37) degrees Celsius (Collins MD et al., 2000). A Granulicatella genus bacterium is a fastidious microorganism; meaning, it has a complex nutritional requirement and can only grow in a specific diet of nutrients. Most fastidious microorganisms require blood or hemoglobin, amino acids and some vitamins to grow. These types of microorganisms are known to cause infections in humans and other organisms that have blood or hemoglobin. This makes its identification difficult because a unique culture media is required for the growth of isolates of G. adiacens. The type of media used to culture these fastidious bacteria in the laboratory is known as BD Chocolate Agar. The chocolate agar is supplemented with hemoglobin (blood) and yeast concentrate. There are two common types of chocolate agars used; the BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) and the BD Chocolate Agar (Blood Agar No. 2 Base). The GC II Agar with IsoVitalex base nutrients contains blood; casein; selected meat peptones as a source of nitrogen; phosphates, which helps to regulate pH; and corn starch which helps to neutralize toxic fatty acids that may be present in the agar. The Blood Agar base is sometimes used as a substitute. The Blood base agar contains blood, liver digest, Proteose peptone and yeast extract which serves as a source of nitrogen and other vitamins for the growth of the microbe that needs to be cultured. However, Granulicatella adiacens is plated on the BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) to reveal growth of nutritionally variant streptococci. Most laboratories use either horse or sheep blood as a source of hemoglobin. A way of identifying these bacteria is that when plated on a BD Chocolate Agar (Blood Agar No. 2 Base), it shows a very slow growth compare to BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) (Perkins et al., 2003 & “Instructions for Use – Ready-To-Use Plated Media." 2011).

Scientists find this bacteria genus difficult to identify because it also appears as a gram negative bacteria sometimes and it has a range of form of shapes in which it appears which makes it uneasy to diagnose patience suffering with infections or diseases from this microbe. On normal circumstance, clinical diseases caused by G. adiacens are identified based on their phenotypic character by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. (Collins MD et al., 2000).

Taxonomy: Bacteria, Firmicutes, Bacilli, Lacotabacillales, Carnobacteriaceae, Granulicatella, Granulicatella adiacens. BIOS: Taxonomy (http://www.gbif.org/species/119570537)

Below are links to pictures of G. adiacens culture growth of isolated colonies after two days of streaking each plate. We notice that there is a slower growth on the Blood base Agar. (Please Click on the links to view pictures)

Sample of G. adiacens growth in BD Chocolate Agar (GC II Agar with IsoVitalex) (http://hampc168.blog.163.com/blog/static/1697976200701910515808/)

BD Chocolate Agar (Blood Agar No. 2 Base) showing slow rate of G. adiacens growth (http://hampc168.blog.163.com/blog/static/1697976200701910515808/)

A case of an infected endocarditis (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Haemophilus_parainfluenzae_Endocarditis_PHIL_851_lores.jpg)





References:

Christensen JJ, Facklam RR. 2001. Granulicatella and Abiotrophia species from Human Clinical Specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 39(10): 3520-3523 http://jcm.asm.org/content/39/10/3520.full

Bizzarro MJ, Callan DA, Farrel PA, Dembry L-M, Gallagher PG. 2011. Granulicatella Adiacens and Early-Onset Sepsis in Neonate. Emrg Infect Dis 17(10): 1971-1973 http://jmm.sgmjournals.org/content/61/Pt_6/755.full

Vandana KE, Mukhopadhyay C, Rau NR, Ajith V, Rajath P. 2010. Native Valve Endocarditis and Femoral Emolism due to Granulicatella Adiacens: A Rare Case Report. Braz J Infect Dis 14(6) http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-86702010000600015

Perkins A, Osorio S, Serrano O, Del Ray MC, Sarria C, Domingo D, Lopez-Brea M. 2003. A Case of Endocarditis due to Granulicatella adiacens. Clinical Microbiology and Infection 9(6): 576-577 http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1469-0691.2003.00646.x/full

Gardenier JC , Hranjec T, Sawyer RG, Bonatti H. 2011. Granulicatella Adiacens Bacteremia in an Elderly Trauma Patient. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 12(3): 251-3 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21524203

Collins MD, Lawson PA. 2000. The Genus Abiotrophia (Kawamura et al.) is not Monophyletic: Proposal of Granulicatella gen. nov., Granulicatella adiacens comb. nov., Granulicatella Elegans comb. nov. and Granulicatella Balaenopterae comb. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 50:365-369 http://ijs.sgmjournals.org/content/50/1/365.full.pdf

Collins MD, Lawson PA. 2000: Granulicatella adiacens (Bouvet et al., 1989) BIOS:Baceteriology Insight Orienting System in the Catalogue of Life in The Catalogue of Life Partnership: Catalogue of Life. http://www.gbif.org/species/119570537

“Instructions for Use – Ready-To-Use Plated Media." Bd.com. Becton Dickinson, Sept. 2011. Web. 12 Dec. 2013. http://www.bd.com/resource.aspx?IDX=8994

Oenococcus kitaharae

Samantha Hosch

December 16,2013

Microbiology

Dr. Hahn


Lineage

• Kingdom- Bacteria

• Division- firmicutes

• Class- Bacilli

• Family- Lactobacillus

• Genius- Oenococcus

• Species- Kitaharae


No picture available

Basic

Oenococcus kitaharae is a bacteria microbe that is gram positive. It can make acid from maltose. It also helps with D-glucose fermentation. Oenococcus kitaharae is made up 42 percent guanine cytosine bonds according too Lactobacillus florum sp. nov., a fructophilic species isolated from flowers by Endo, Futagawa-Endo, Sakamoto, Kitahara, and Dicks.

It does not have the mutSL gene, which fixes some mutations and is believed by scenticsts to have not had this gene for a long time. According to the article Role of Hypermutability in the evolution of the genus Oenococcus kitaharae has a rate of 1/13 protein mutation and that most of it its mutations are random ones without any real meaning.

Oenococcus kitaharae can be grown in the lab and cultured but it does take it own time to do so, for to five days longer than most similar bacteria.

O. kitaharae can not break down anything made of organic acids but is lactic acid loving bacteria microbe. This explains why it was in shochu residue and not wine.


History

Oenococcus kitaharae was discovered in 2006. It is currently the second member of only a two-member genus. Its genus partner is Oenococcus onei, which has been renamed.


Information

The Oenococcus genus is known for their ability to be involved with fermentation for this reason and the fact that it is present in wine the genus is studied often. However onei and kitaharae have different living environments but can have crossovers, this has been shown through PCR reactions from wine samples.
Some sources show that O. kitaharae can cause fermentation in some of O. onei environments well other show that it does just want it needs to stay a live.
No matter what there is no disagreement on the fact the fact that they can be found together. 

Oenococcus kitaharae is much able to survive in difficult environment. Apparently, It has more DNA in the Oenococcus kitaharae. The extra pieces of DNA resemble that of a virus according an article titled Comparative Genomics of Oenococcus kitaharae. It is found in Japan in several things including flowers.


Sources

Borneman, A. R., McCarthy, J. M., Chambers, P. J., & Bartowsky, E. J. (2012). Functional divergence in the genus oenococcus as predicted by genome sequencing of the newly- described species, oenococcus kitaharae. PLoS One, 7(1), e29626. doi: 10.137

Endo, A., Futagawa-Endo, Y., Sakamoto, M., Kitahara, M., & Dicks, D. M. T. (2010). Lactobacillus florum sp. nov., a fructophilic species isolated from flowers. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 60, 2478–2482. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.019067-0

Endo, A., & Okada, S. (2006). Oenococcus kitaharae sp. nov., a non-acidophilic and non- malolactic-fermenting oenococcus isolated from a composting distilled shochu residue. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, (56), 2345-2348. doi: 10.1099/ijs.0.64288-0 Gonzalez-Arenzana, L., Lopez, R., Santamaría, P., & Lopez-Alfaro, I. (2013). Dynamics of lactic acid bacteria populations in rioja wines by pcr-dgge comparison with culture-dependent methods . Appl Microbial Biotechnol, (97), 6931-6941. doi: 10.1007/s00253-013-4974-y Marcobal, A. M., Sela , D. A., Wolf, Y. I., Makarova, K. S., & Mills, D. A. (2008). Role of hypermutability in the evolution of the genus oenococcus. Journal Of Bacteriology, 190(2), 564-570. doi: 10.1128/JB.01457-07

Michlmayr, H., Schümann, C., Wurbs, P., arreira Braz da Silva, N. M., Rogl, V., Kulbe, K. D., & del Hierro, A. M. (2010). A β-glucosidase from oenococcus oeni atcc baa-1163 with potential for aroma release in wine: Cloning and expression in e. coli. World J Microbiol Biotechnol, 26(7), 1281-1289. doi: 10.1007/s11274-009-0299-5

Pseudomonas fluorescens

Pseudomonas fluorescens Microbe Wiki

Classification Kingdom: Bacteria Phylum: Proteobacteria Class: Gammaproteobacteria Order: Pseudomonadales Family: Pseudomonadaceae Genus: Pseudomonas Species: P. fluorescens

Habitat Information: The soil organism was collected in the front yard of an Austin, TX home on January 26, 2018. Soil was a little moist Picked up on a day that had 83% humidity Zero rainfall Calm wind 51℉ air temperature.

Pseudomonas fluorescens is mainly found in plants, soil, and water surfaces.

Description and Significance: Pseudomonas fluorescens are gram-negative bacilli shaped bacteria. It grows best in temperatures that are 25-30℃. Certain strains of Pseudomonas fluorescens have been found to help stop plant disease by protecting the root and seed from fungal infection[REF]. Other strains contribute to plant growth. Due to P. fluorescens having different flagella it has different strains which cause it to be in different environments including the bloodstream. [REF]

Cell Structure, Metabolism, and Life Cycle: Cell Structure

P. fluorescens are small-to-medium sized Gram-negative, rod-shaped bacilli. They are often found with multiple flagella in a lophotrichous arrangement. These many flagella, along with its ability to generate a biofilm, make P. fluorescens a great colonizer on various different surfaces and in different hosts and able to easily adapt to its environment[REF]. One particularly prominent role of this biofilm is to serve as a protective agents to plants against parasitic fungi. Less is known about how P. fluorescens’ structure allows it to bind to mammalian cells, however it has been known to adhere to red blood cells in humans, which is one reason it is believed that, when found as a pathogenic agent in humans (which is very rare), it is almost always in the bloodstream. This organism follows a similar life cycle pattern found with other biofilm generating species, as discussed in “Life Cycle” [REF].

Metabolism P. fluorescens is well-known for having an extensive variety of metabolic capabilities, which allows it to live in so many different environments such as on the surfaces of plants, in soil, in the rhizosphere, and even in the bloodstream of humans and other animals[REF].

P. fluorescens is a obligate aerobe, however, it has a unique ability to use nitrate (NO3) instead of atmospheric oxygen (O2) as its final electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain [REF]

A unique metabolic feature of P. fluorescens is that it secretes a fluorescent pigment, pyoverdine, which imparts fluorescent properties to the organism under UV light, which is what led to its name. Pyoverdine is a high-affinity iron-chelating molecule that is essential for the organism’s acquisition of iron from the environment and used for bacterial growth. [REF] See more in “Physiology” for biochemical tests conducted in class.

Life Cycle P. fluorescens follows a typical “biofilm” life cycle in that generally proceeds as follows: Attachment: planktonic cells adhere to a surface and become sessile Growth: cells exude exoenzymes and proteins to create a protective biofilm in which to flourish and grow. Detachment: individual cells or clusters of cells will detach from the biofilm in order to move and colonize new surfaces/hosts

Genome Structure P. fluorescens’ genome is composed of a single, circular chromosome with a median length of 6,300,000 base pairs. Guanine and Cytosine make up 60.3% of the nucleotides found in its DNA (its G/C ratio). [REF]



Physiology and Pathogenesis: Physiology

Gelatin Hydrolysis: Negative DNA Hydrolysis: Negative Lipid Hydrolysis: Positive Phenol Red Broth: No fermentation Starch Hydrolysis: Negative Casein Hydrolysis: Positive Methyl Red: Negative Voges-Proskauer: Negative Citrate: Positive SIM: Negative Nitrate Reduction: Positive Urea Hydrolysis: Negative Triple Sugar Iron: No fermentation, does not reduce sulfur Decarboxylation: Arginine is positive, lysine and ornithine are negative Phenylalanine: Negative Oxidase: Positive EMB Agar: Positive HE Agar: Negative Catalase: Positive Blood Agar: Positive Mannitol Salts Agar: Negative PEA Agar: Negative

Bile Esculin: Negative 6.5% Salt Tolerance: Negative Kirby-Bauer Antimicrobial Susceptibility Test for disinfectants: Kirby-Bauer Antimicrobial Susceptibility Tests for antibiotics: sensitive to several antibiotics [REF]

Pathophysiology Although P. fluorescens itself is largely considered non-pathogenic, it contains a number of metabolic abilities to allow it to thrive in mammalian hosts, including, but not limited to: Production of bioactive secondary metabolites P. fluorescens produces a long list of secondary metabolites that allow it to successfully compete with other, similar organisms, such as phenazine, hydrogen cyanide, 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol (DAPG), rhizoxin, and pyoluteorin. [REF] Production of biofilms As aforementioned, one of the key structural components of P. fluorescens is its ability to produce biofilms. Type III secretions Type III secretion systems (T3SSs) are molecular, needle-like complexes that inject cellular products into the cells of its host/surface, known as effectors. The most common T3SS in P. fluorescens is the Hrp1 family[REF]. These “hypersensitive response” secretion systems trigger a hypersensitive response in resistant plants, but leads to infection in vulnerable plants. Less is known about T3SSs involved in this organism’s infections in mammals, but different strains have been found to adhere to human Red Blood Cells, as well as human glial cells in culture. [REF]

References Ramette A, Moënne-Loccoz Y, Défago G, Prevalence of fluorescent pseudomonads producing antifungal phloroglucinols and/or hydrogen cyanide in soils naturally suppressive or conducive to tobacco black root rot. FEMS Microbiol Ecol. 2003 May 1; 44(1):35-43. Gibaud M, Martin-Dupont P, Dominguez M, Laurentjoye P, Chassaing B, Leng B. Pseudomonas fluorescens septicemia following transfusion of contaminated blood. Presse Med. 1984 Nov 24; 13(42):2583-4. Scales BS, Dickson RP, LiPuma JJ, Huffnagle GB. 2014. Microbiology, genomics, and clinical significance of the Pseudomonas fluorescens species complex, an unappreciated colonizer of humans. Clin Microbiol Rev 27:927–948. doi:10.1128/CMR.00044-14. Hernández-Salmerón JE, et al. Draft Genome Sequence of the Biocontrol and Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens strain UM270. Stand Genomic Sci 2016 Ghiglione JF, Gourbiere F, Potier P, Philippot L, Lensi R. Role of respiratory nitrate reductase in ability of Pseudomonas fluorescens YT101 to colonize the rhizosphere of maize. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2000;66(9):4012–4016. Doi: 10.1128/AEM.66.9.4012-4016.2000 Hohnadel D, Meyer JM. Specificity of pyoverdine-mediated iron uptake among fluorescent Pseudomonas strains. J Bacteriol. 1988 Oct; 170(10):4865-73. Baum MM, Kainović A, O'Keeffe T, Pandita R, McDonald K, Wu S, Webster P. Characterization of structures in biofilms formed by a Pseudomonas fluorescens isolated from soil. BMC Microbiol. 2009 May 21; 9():103 Adebusuyi AA, Foght JM. An alternative physiological role for the EmhABC efflux pump in Pseudomonas fluorescens cLP6a. BMC Microbiol. 2011;11:252. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-11-252. [Online.] Preston GM, Bertrand N, Rainey PB. Type III secretion in plant growth-promoting Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25. Mol Microbiol. 2001 Sep; 41(5):999-1014. Chapalain A, Rossignol G, Lesouhaitier O, Merieau A, Gruffaz C, Guerillon J, Meyer JM, Orange N, Feuilloley MG. Comparative study of 7 fluorescent pseudomonad clinical isolates.Can J Microbiol. 2008 Jan; 54(1):19-27.