Effects of Nicotine On Cell Cillia

An Introduction to Nicotine

Nicotine(C₁₀H₁₄N₂)is a naturally occurring true alkaloid molecule found in tobacco plants. An alkaloid is a class of organic nitrogenous compounds in plants which have prominent physiological impacts on humans. These include, but are not limited to, the inhibition and activation of enzymes, a pronounced effect on nucleic acid and protein synthesis, and effects on membrane structure and cytoskeletal structure and nerve transmission and induction. Nicotine has gained notoriety in public life due to its addictive nature, which is a direct result of its agonistic behavior in the human brain and nervous system. Nicotine acts as a receptor agonist, a chemical that binds to a receptor and elicits a biological response. Nicotine acts as an agonist to Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, or nAChRs, a class of receptor polypeptides that respond to the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the human body. Nicotine competitively binds to these receptors, as it mimics the effects of acetylcholine. These receptors are found in both nervous systems in the human body, as well as muscles and tissues of the human body. They are the primary receptors at the neuromuscular junction in muscles, and are the primary site of nerve and muscle communication. These receptors get their name from nicotine, as nicotine selectively binds to these nicotinic receptors rather than the other receptors in the area. Nicotine is a stimulant, a class of substances that increase physiological and nervous activity in the body. Nicotine stimulates the central nervous system and in turn causes the body to release several neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, acetylcholine, serotonin, and norepinephrine. However, nicotine only causes a brief uptick in neurotransmitter activity and presence; and the constant activation of these receptors and spike in neurotransmitter activity creates the need for more nicotine to be ingested in order to achieve the same effect due to a newly developed drug tolerance. As nicotine stimulates the secretion of these neurotransmitters and receptor activity, the human body is trained to associate a pleasurable response with the usage of nicotine. This activation of the brain's reward pathways; coupled with the stimulation of the adrenal glands, helps create its addictive nature as we become more and more inclined to garner that positive physiological response.

A singular molecule of Nicotine. Nicotine is a naturally occurring true alkaloid found in tobacco. It consists of ten carbon atoms, fourteen hydrogen atoms, and two nitrogen atoms.

Nicotine is most commonly absorbed through the lungs in the form of smoke, or through smokeless forms of absorption in mucous membranes in the mouth such as chewing tobacco. When used for smoking cessation purposes, or nicotine replacement therapy (NRT), it may be absorbed through buffered alkaline pH systems such as nicotine gum that allow for slower nicotine absorption through cell membranes due to a more gradual integration of nicotine into the bloodstream. Another NRT method, nicotine patches, can be absorbed through the skin in nicotine patches. However, the rate of release into the bloodstream is contingent on many factors, such as permeability of the skin, rate of diffusion, and the rate of nicotine absorption in differing transdermal systems. In consumption outside of NRT, nicotine is metabolized and absorbed very quickly in the body. For example, nicotine absorbed while smoking often reaches the brain in 10 to 20 seconds after the initial puff of a cigarette. This rapid absorption in turn creates behavioral reinforcement that is quick and easy to create, and this rapidity allows the user to modify the amount of nicotine absorbed, as well as the corresponding effects with the raised level of absorption. This method of modification makes smoking the most dependent form of nicotine addiction, as building tolerance coupled with the modification of intake rapidly accelerates the amount of nicotine needed to garner positive reinforcement. Nicotine absorption is largely dependent on pH. Nicotine has a pKa value of 8.0, making it a weak base. When nicotine is ionized, nicotine crosses membranes much slower than when in its unionized form. Therefore, depending on the method of nicotine consumption, the rate of absorption can be significantly faster or slower. For example, nicotine found in many standard American cigarettes is coupled with an acidic, flue-cured cigarette smoke (pH 5.5-6.0), which generates an ionized form of nicotine that will be slowly and minimally absorbed through the mouth, even if held there for a prolonged period of time. In comparison, nicotine coupled with air-cured tobacco smoke, the tobacco found in cigars and some European cigarettes is more basic (6.5 pH or higher), generating a considerable presence of unionized nicotine. Because nicotine in this type of smoke is generally in its unionized state, it is more readily absorbed through the mouth, negating the necessity for nicotine exposure to the respiratory system for proper absorption. Due to the minimal absorption through the mouth when smoking standard American cigarettes, the integration of nicotine into the respiratory system is necessary for absorption. The aerial pathways found in the lungs and alveoli provide a large surface area and tight airways allowing for nicotine concentration to be evenly distributed throughout the respiratory tract. Alongside this even distribution, the basic fluid (7.4 pH) in the human lung allows for nicotine to become about 69% ionized and 31% unionized. This larger presence of unionized nicotine molecules promotes a faster transfer of nicotine across cellular membranes, and the distribution of molecules into the bloodstream, which also provides a basic pH of 7.4. This distribution in turn allows nicotine molecules to bind to receptors in sites such as the liver, kidney, spleen, and lung, leading to potentially damaging effects at these sites. As noted above, after absorption into the bloodstream, nicotine binds to nicotinic receptors at these organ sites and at other neuromuscular junctions. The activation of these sites sends signals to the brain that promote neurotransmitter emission and the stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, leading to pleasurable effects coupled with stimulating effects such as higher heart rate and increases alertness.

Nicotine has been a cause of discussion due to its potentially harmful effects on human cells and microbial cells, as well as its adverse physiological effects. Nicotine has been found to potentially help the development of cancerous cells, as it allows for increased cancer cell survival and proliferation due to its stimulation of nAChRs. Through the activation of particular signal transduction pathways, nicotine allows for damaged cells to survive. Nicotine forms arachidonic acid metabolites which can cause a large increase in cell division, which is extremely problematic when the body is faced with rapid cancer cell growth and division. Chewing tobacco can lead to inflammation of the human gums, which leads to increased risk of endogenous nitrosation, a process capable of generating carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds in humans. The nitrosation of nicotine can lead to the formation of various carcinogens such as N-nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). This is especially prevalent in chewing tobacco users as the inflammation of the gums, combined with the increased risk of carcinogen formation due to the presence of nicotine could lead to an increased risk of cancer. As nicotine is very addictive, a lack of the drug may also lead to withdrawal symptoms such as headaches, anxiety, depression, and severe nausea, to name a few. Nicotine also puts users at increased risk of heart attacks as it has been suggested that it may lead to the hardening of arterial walls. There are also many immediate negative effects of nicotine, such as nausea, diarrhea, vomiting, and abdominal pain. Nicotine increased blood pressure and heart rate, which may also lead to increased risk for cardiovascular dysfunction. However, the effects of nicotine may not all be bad. Nicotine has been shown to increase cognitive function and increase alertness, increase relaxation, and is being researched as a possible remedy for several disorders such as Alzheimer’s Disease, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Parkinson’s Disease. Nicotine’s activation of the brain’s reward and pleasure center is a main culprit as to why nicotine is so addictive, and a main reason why many patients with various mental health disorders have used it to self-medicate. This contradiction of short term positive effects and potential long term negative effects are a large reason why nicotine has become such an interesting chemical for scientists to research.

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Subscript: C₁₀H₁₄N_{2
Superscript: Fe³⁺}

The Effects of Nicotine on Microbial Cells

The effects of nicotine on human cells has been examined in depth, however the effects of nicotine and cigarette smoke are a less studied field that may have large scale implications. One example of this relationship was studied in patients with CRS (chronic rhinosinusitis), a broad spectrum of inflammatory and infectious processes that primarily impact the nose and paranasal sinuses. In many illnesses, a large presence of bacteria is the cause for a prolonged sickness. It has been suggested that there may be a correlation between nicotine, tobacco smoke, and bacterial biofilm formation and virulence. A bacterial biofilm is defined as a complex, unified, community of bacteria that attach to abiotic and biotic surfaces. The formation of these biofilms allow for microbes to evade host defenses, increase antibiotic resistance, and deploy individual bacteria in order to create other colonies in other areas within the host. In addition to a plethora of other risk factors, exposure to tobacco smoke has long been touted as a risk factor for the development of CRS. It has been noted that in bacterial samples extracted from CRS patients who use tobacco, the prevalence of biofilm formation is significantly higher than in samples of patients who do not use tobacco.

Bacterial cells that were exposed to tobacco smoke at first, removed from the smoke, and then allowed to grow without the presence of tobacco smoke showed a tendency to revert back to a non biofilm phenotype. This suggests that when infected with an illness in the sinus, continued exposure to tobacco smoke while infected allows bacteria to garner more antibiotic resistance, become more virulent, and continue their lifespan and infection of the host much longer than when tobacco smoke is not present. Bacterial exposure to cigarette smoke and nicotine alters the bacterial life cycle, and in turn makes the presence of these bacteria more problematic. This notion can be applied not only in sinus infections, but in microbial infections of other areas of the body that smoke reaches, including lung infections such as pneumonia and bronchitis. It has been suggested that many illnesses smokers face are refractory, which can be directly attributed to the fact that bacteria are less likely to form biofilms when smoking secedes, and making them easier to treat.

A phylogenetic tree of nicotine degrading bacteria and other related species compiled based on the bacterium's 16S rRNA genomic sequence

Outside of harmful bacteria, nicotine has been found to provide a stable source of energy for some microbial groups. These microbes, known as “Nicotine-degrading-microorganisms” or “NDMs”, possess the ability to use the carbon and nitrogen atoms found in nicotine molecules as their sole source of the nitrogen and carbon needed for growth. These microbes thrive in tobacco rich soil, leaves from the tobacco plant, and in waste formed after the cultivation and use of tobacco. These microbes have been researched and used to improve the quality of cigarettes, dispose of tobacco waste properly, and help to create intermediates of nicotine. Tobacco and nicotine waste has been shown to promote several adverse health effects in humans, so proper removal of this waste is essential in promoting good public health. These microbes have been shown to help reduce the amount of nicotine in tobacco leaves, while still maintaining the same taste of tobacco and assuring the leaf can still be smoked properly. This reduction of nicotine in leaves through microbes helps to detoxify the waste produced from tobacco, and limit the amount of harmful nicotine found in the water and land of areas where waste is deposited. These findings have helped to increase the efficacy of wastewater treatment, and have since generated ways to degrade nicotine faster before it can become a serious health concern. Although bacteria degrade nicotine in various ways, one example of this degradation is A.nicotinovorans, a bacterium that uses the pyridine pathway to attack the 6’ carbon in nicotine through hydroxylation. After this process, various chemical groups such as hydroxyl are introduced, forcing the molecule to restructure and form a new molecular structure. This process allows nicotine to be broken down into smaller components such as formaldehyde and methylamine that are better suited for integration into the environment. Thus, the bacterium is able to utilize the carbon in nicotine for growth, concurrently making the molecule less harmful to the environment.

Another example is Pseudomonas plecoglossicida, a bacteria that has been found to grow in an environment containing high concentrations of nicotine. In this particular case, Pseudomonas plecoglossicida has been found to not only enhance its growth in high concentrations of nicotine, but simultaneously speed up the process of nicotine degradation. This evidence further supports the notion that some microbes not only survive in mediums with high nicotine content, but utilize the molecule to maximize their cellular development. This species of bacteria utilizes the pyrroline pathway of nicotine degradation, a pathway that differs from the conventional metabolic pathways of nicotine degradation. After genomic analysis, researchers have also found this particular species possess three key genes involved in the catabolism of nicotine, spmA, spmB, and spmC. The finding of these genes may also point to the fact that other bacterium with similar genomes could also possess this same metabolic pathway previously unknown to researchers. The finding that some bacteria metabolize and catabolize nicotine for energy unconventionally is a discovery that could be used in attempts to find the most efficient and environmentally conscious method of waste detoxification, and sheds more light on the diversity of nicotine catabolic pathways in the world around us.

Section 2 Effects of Nicotine on Animal Cells

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Conclusion

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References

Edited by [Author Name], student of Joan Slonczewski for BIOL 116 Information in Living Systems, 2020, Kenyon College.