Anaplasma marginale: Difference between revisions
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==Cell structure and metabolism== | ==Cell structure and metabolism== | ||
Anaplasma marginale is a pathogenic gram-negative stain bacteria with an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides. Interestingly, several genes for lipopolysaccharide and lipid A biosyntheses were missing. A complete pathway for peptidoglycan synthesis was also not present. “The lack of a traditional cell wall seems to be a common feature for the family Anaplasmataceae, but not from the order Rickettsiales because the family Rickettsiaceae are capable of synthesizing lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan. Unlike other members of the family, A. marginale does not seem to be particularly fragile, and may be able to strengthen its cell in an alternative way.” [2] | |||
For energy, Anaplasma marginale undergoes aerobic respiration using the TCA cycle. Anaerobic metabolism, glycolysis, occurs in its cytosol. In vitro tests on organism substrates have shown the use of pyruvate, a glycolytic product, for its metabolism. [3] Even though most of the glycolytic enzymes were detected, a sugar transport system was not found; therefore, the organism may depend more heavily on gluconeogensis for its glucose supply. [2] | |||
Members of its class, Alphaproteobacteria and particularly from the order Rickettsiales, are thought to be the precursors of eukaryotic cell mitochondria. According to the endosymbiotic theory, the mitochondria organelle now existent in eukaryotic cells originated as separate prokaryotic organisms, which were taken inside the cell as endosymbionts. [4] | |||
==Ecology== | ==Ecology== | ||
Revision as of 20:22, 5 June 2007
A Microbial Biorealm page on the genus Anaplasma marginale
Classification
Higher order taxa
Bacteria; Proteobacteria; Alphaproteobacteria; Rickettsiales; Anaplasmataceae
Species
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NCBI: Taxonomy |
Anaplasma marginale
Strains:
Anaplasma marginale str. Florida; Anaplasma marginale str. Illinois; Anaplasma marginale str. St. Maries; Anaplasma marginale str. Virginia
Other names:
Anaplasma theileri; Anaplasma rossicum; Anaplasma argentium; Anaplasma theileri Neitz 1957; Anaplasma rossicum Yakimoff and Belawine 1927; Anaplasma argentium Lignieres 1914; Anaplasma marginale Theiler 1910
Description and significance
Anaplasma marginale is the most prevalent tick-borne, livestock pathogen worldwide and is a constraint to animal health. The disease results in significant morbidity and mortality in U.S. cattle and, economically, its exportation. Despite a global impact on animal health, there is still no widely accepted vaccine. Live vaccinations are blood-based and are widely used in tropical countries, but they cannot be licensed in the U.S. because of the risk of transmitting known and unknown pathogens. [1] An effective vaccine for anaplasmosis is a priority for the USDA National Cattlemen’s Beef Association and many other research groups.
A. marginale is the type species for the genus Anaplasma which contains both animal and human pathogens. It is a Rickettsiales obligate intracellular bacterium. These organisms can be easily cultured from the red blood cells of cattle. While erythrocytes seem to be the only site of infection, the bacteria undergo a complex developmental cycle in ticks, which are then transmitted during feeding on host cattle. The genomic information would have a broad applicability to closely related species and organisms within the same order, since members of Rickettsiales are responsible for both animal and human diseases and deaths.
Genome structure
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Genome: Genome |
Members of the order, Rickettsiales, are small, obligate intracellular bacteria that typically have small genomes due to "reductive evolution" from intracellular parasitism. Because many obligate bacteria are difficult to culture, their need of being grown in a host cell makes it difficult to obtain large amounts of organism-specific DNA necessary for whole genome sequencing. [2] The first complete genome sequencing was done on A. Marginale St. Maries strain.
- Genes: 1005
- Protein coding: 949
- Length: 1,197,687 nt
- Structural RNAs: 40
- GC Content: 49%
- Pseudo genes: 16
- % Coding: 85%
- Topology: circular
[5,6]
Cell structure and metabolism
Anaplasma marginale is a pathogenic gram-negative stain bacteria with an outer membrane composed of lipopolysaccharides. Interestingly, several genes for lipopolysaccharide and lipid A biosyntheses were missing. A complete pathway for peptidoglycan synthesis was also not present. “The lack of a traditional cell wall seems to be a common feature for the family Anaplasmataceae, but not from the order Rickettsiales because the family Rickettsiaceae are capable of synthesizing lipopolysaccharide and peptidoglycan. Unlike other members of the family, A. marginale does not seem to be particularly fragile, and may be able to strengthen its cell in an alternative way.” [2]
For energy, Anaplasma marginale undergoes aerobic respiration using the TCA cycle. Anaerobic metabolism, glycolysis, occurs in its cytosol. In vitro tests on organism substrates have shown the use of pyruvate, a glycolytic product, for its metabolism. [3] Even though most of the glycolytic enzymes were detected, a sugar transport system was not found; therefore, the organism may depend more heavily on gluconeogensis for its glucose supply. [2]
Members of its class, Alphaproteobacteria and particularly from the order Rickettsiales, are thought to be the precursors of eukaryotic cell mitochondria. According to the endosymbiotic theory, the mitochondria organelle now existent in eukaryotic cells originated as separate prokaryotic organisms, which were taken inside the cell as endosymbionts. [4]
Ecology
Specific species of cattle ticks are carriers of Anaplasma marginale The organism multiplies in the tick and will pass to later stages of the tick life cycle. However, it does not appear the infection is passed on to the eggs. Consequently, the next generation of ticks will not be infected unless they also feed on a carrier animal. As carriers, they are unaffected by the bacteria. These ticks carry this infection and infect cattle as a parasite feeding off the bood of the host. Because the adult male tick is more mobile and lives longer than other stages, it is the most likely stage to transmit the disease. Biting flies can transmit the disease but are less efficient vectors than ticks. The organism can also cross the placenta to the fetus.
Calves from immune mothers receive temporary protection (maternal antibody) from the colostrum (first milk) which prevents anaplasmosis. This protection lasts about 3 months and, in most cases, is followed by an age resistance that lasts until the animals are about 9 to 12 months old. Calves exposed to anaplasmosis when the maternal or age resistance is high, rarely show clinical symptoms but develop a solid, long lasting immunity. It is therefore possible to have both Anaplasma marginale and cattle ticks present on a property without animal losses or clinical disease. If cattle are not exposed to Anaplasma as calves, the age resistance gradually wanes and these animals will become increasingly susceptible to the disease. If susceptible adult cattle are mixed with infected cattle in the presence of the cattle tick, serious losses due to anaplasmosis can occur.
Pathology
Anaplasmosis is a form of tick fever carried by a specfic species of cattle tick. A. marginale is an obligate intracellular bacteria. As the disease progresses, infected and even uninfected red blood cells are destroyed mainly in the liver and spleen, resulting in an increasing anaemia and even death in severe cases. Any stage of the cattle tick’s life cycle can become infected after feeding on an animal carrying Anaplasma organisms in its blood stream. Therefore an infected stage of the tick must transfer to a susceptible animal for transmission to occur. The bacteria begins its course by invading and multiplying in red blood cells of the host cattle.
Clinical symptoms of infection include transient fever, weakness and respiratory distress particularly after exercise, depression and loss of appetite, jaundice, and brown urine due to bile pigments. Cattle that recover from anaplasmosis remain carriers of the organism and are immune to further disease.
Application to Biotechnology
A. Marginale is the most prevalent tick-borne pathogen of cattle with a world-wide distribution. Studies conducted in this organism are in hopes of finding vaccines against A. marginale and the relatives in the order Rickettsiales that pathogenic for both animals and humans.
Current Research
"Identification of midgut and salivary glands as specific and distinct barriers to efficient tick-borne transmission of Anaplasma marginale."
Ueti MW, Reagan JO Jr, Knowles DP Jr, Scoles GA, Shkap V, Palmer GH. April 9, 2007
There are at least two specific barriers, the midgut and salivary glands, to efficient tick-borne transmission. This inability to colonize the midgut epithelium prevented subsequent development within the salivary glands and thus prevents transmission of the A. Marginale to the host. This research highlights the complexity of the pathogen-tick interaction.
"Complete genome sequencing of Anaplasma marginale reveals that the surface is skewed to two superfamilies of outer membrane proteins"
Brayton KA, Kappmeyer LS, Herndon DR, Dark MJ, Tibbals DL, Palmer GH, McGuire TC, Knowles DP Jr. January 18, 2005
This published the first time A. Marginale was completely sequenced. Within the mammalian host, A. marginale generates antigenic variants by changing a surface coat composed of numerous proteins. By sequencing and annotating the complete 1,197,687-bp genome of the St. Maries strain of A. marginale, it described the membrane of the organism. It found that the surface coat is dominated by two families containing immunodominant proteins: the msp2 superfamily and the msp1 superfamily.
"Outer Membrane Protein Complex of Anaplasma Marginale, Use in Vaccine Development Through Genomics"
Scoles, G., Palmer, G. USDA, Current ARS Project Start Date: Jul 31, 2003 End Date: May 31, 2008
Because of its damaging, pathogenic nature, much of the current research on this organism are on finding effective vaccines against anaplasma marginale and its relatives. The USDA (United States Department of Agriculture) Agriculture Research Service is currently studying the outer membrane protein complex to use the genomics of the organism to produce a vaccine. By targetting the outer membrane complex that contains protection-inducing proteins the vaccine would be more effective at targetting the cattle disease. The research will test whether novel outer membrane proteins induce protection against the challenge when delivered in a recombinant-based vaccine.
References
1) Kocan K.M., de la Fuente J., Guglielmone A.A., Melendez RD. “Antigens and alternatives for control of Anaplasma marginale infection in cattle”. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2003 Oct. 16, Vol 4. p. 698-712.
2) Brayton KA, Kappmeyer LS, Herndon DR, Dark MJ, Tibbals DL, Palmer GH, McGuire TC, Knowles DP Jr., "Complete genome sequencing of Anaplasma marginale reveals that the surface is skewed to two superfamilies of outer membrane proteins." Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Nov. Vol 102. p 844-9.
3) McHolland, L. E., Caldwell, D. R., "Pyruvate metabolism by Anaplasma marginale in cell-free culture". Canadian Journal of Microbiology. 1999. Vol 45. p 185-189.
4) Margulis, Lynn, “Serial endosymbiotic theory (SET) and composite individuality – Transition from bacterial to eukaryotic genomes.” Microbiology Today. 2004 Nov. Vol 31. p 172-174.
5) NCBI Taxonomy Browser, "Anaplasma marginale" Retrieved 30 April, 2007
6) TGR-CMR, "Anaplasma marginale St. Maries Genome" Retrieved 1 May, 2007
7) HealthGene - Molecular Diagnostic and Research Center. "D425 Anaplasma Marginale"
8) Ueti MW, Reagan JO Jr, Knowles DP Jr, Scoles GA, Shkap V, Palmer GH., "Identification of midgut and salivary glands as specific and distinct barriers to efficient tick-borne transmission of Anaplasma marginale." Infect Immun. 2007 April 9.
9) Kawasaki PM, Kano FS, Tamekuni K, Garcia JL, Marana ER, Vidotto O, Vidotto MC. “Immune response of BALB/c mouse immunized with recombinant MSPs proteins of Anaplasma marginale binding to immunostimulant complex (ISCOM)”. Res Vet Sci. 2007 Mar. 27.
10) USDA, “ARS Project: Outer Membrane Protein Complex of Anaplasma Marginale, Use in Vaccine Development Through Genomics” Start Date: Jul 31, 2003 End Date: May 31, 2008
Edited by Patricia Shih; student of Rachel Larsen and Kit Pogliano
