Clostridium acetobutylicum
A Microbial Biorealm page on the genus Clostridium acetobutylicum
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Classification
Higher order taxa
Bacteria (Domain); Firmicutes (Phylum); Clostridia (Class); Clostridiales (Order); Clostridiaceae (Family); Clostridium (Genus)
Species
Clostridium acetobutylicum
Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 is considered the type strain.
NCBI: Taxonomy |
Description and significance
Clostridium acetobutylicum is a Gram-positive bacillus (1). C. acetobutylicum is most often soil dwelling, although it has been found in a number of different environments. It is mesophilic with optimal temperatures of 10-65°C. In addition, the organism is saccharolytic (can break down sugar) (1) and capable of producing a number of different commercially useful products; most notably acetone, ethanol and butanol (2).
C. acetobutylicum requires anaerobic conditions in order to grow in its vegetative state. In its vegetative states, it is motile via flagella across is entire surface. It can only survive up to several hours in aerobic conditions, in which it will form endospores that can last for years even in aerobic conditions. Only when these spores are in favorable anaerobic conditions will vegetative growth continue (1).
It was first isolated between 1912 and 1914 (2). Chaim Weizmann cultured the bacteria to produce produce acetone, ethanol and butanol in a process called the ABE method. Thus, it is fitting that C. acetobutylicum is often called the "Weizmann organism." The products were then used in the production of TNT and gunpowder in the first World War (3). Following WWI, the ABE process was widely used until the 1950's when petrochemical processes became more cost-effective due to the cost and availability of petroleum fuel sources. The recent fossil fuel crisis has spurred more research into C. acetobutylicum and the utilization of the ABE process (2).
In addition to being an important bacteria for industrial use, C. acetobutylicum is studied as model for endospore formation in bacteria. It has been compared to the most frequently studied endospore bacteria, Bacillus subtilis (2). Understanding the pathways of endospore formation is important because many endospore forming bacteria are human pathogens, in both the Bacillus and Clostridium genuses.
The most commonly studied strain is the type-strain, ATCC 824. This strain was discovered and isolated in soil from a Connecticut garden in 1924. Research has indicated that the widely studied ATCC 824 is closely related to the Weizmann strain used in the early industrial production of acetone (2).
Genome structure
The genome of Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 has been sequenced using the shotgun approach. This is the model strain for solvent-producing bacteria. The genome consists of one circular chromosome and a circular plasmid. The chromosome contains 3,940,880 base pairs. There is little strand bias with approximately 51.5% of genes being transcribed from forward strand and 49.5% from the complementary strand (2).
Noted genes common to bacteria include the 11 operons which code for ribosomes. It is interesting that each of these operons is near the oriC (origin of replication) and oriented in the direction of the leading strand of the replication fork. (2). This is a characteristic commonly observed known as gene dosage, in which highly transcribed genes are placed near the oriC. Due to the orientation of these genes, they will be transcribed in greater number while DNA is in the process of being replicated and there are additional copies of the gene present within the cell.
In addition, the genome contains of one large plasmid (called a megaplasmid). This plasmid seems to be contain nearly all genes involved with solvent production and is aptly named pSOL1. pSOL1 contains 192,000 base pairs and codes for 178 polypeptides. Examination of the plasmid indicates no bias in which strand is the coding strand (2).
When Clostridium acetobutylicum is cultured in continuous culture or undergoes many transfers, the strain slowly degenerates in that it loses its ability for solvent production. Experiments to determine what causes degeneration have shown that pSOL1 contains four genes which are vital for alcohol and acetone production. Over the course of many transfers or continued vegetative growth, this plasmid is lost. Further evidence for the loss of this plasmid leading to strain degeneration is that mutants lacking these genes and unable to produce solvent resume acetone and alcohol production upon complementation of the genes via plasmids (4).
Other, less studied strains of C. acetobutylicum such as ATCC 4259 have shown similar degeneration. The plasmid in this strain is named pWEIZ. Again, degeneration due to serial culturing of this strain is thought to occur because of eventual loss pWEIZ.
This strain is worth noting because, interestingly, these degenerate strains also do not sporulate. This has spurred the idea that genes involved in sporulation also exist on the plasmid in both ATCC 4259 as well as the type strain, ATCC 824 (4, 2).
Cell structure and metabolism
Energy metabolism and byproducts
Clostridium acetobutylicum is a chemoorganotroph. It obtains energy by undergoing fermentation with organic sources as the electron donor and source of energy. It follows that it is heterotrophic with its source of carbon coming from organic molecules. In particular, C. acetobutylicum requires a carbohydrate source capable of undergoing fermentation to survive (1). In the process of fermentation, the same molecule which is oxidized (losing electrons), later becomes reduced.
In addition, C. acetobutylicum is an obligate anaerobe. It can only survive hours in an aerobic environment before undergoing sporulation as a means to survive for much longer periods of time in the aerobic environment. It displays no activity of catalase, an enzyme important for aerobic organisms in order to convert a toxic byproduct of oxygen metabolism, hydrogen peroxide, to water and oxygen (5). However, it contains many enzymes that allow it survive in microoxic environments, such as superoxide dismutase. These enzymes are upregulated in the presence of oxygen and contribute to short term cell survival in microoxic environments (6).
C. acetobutylicum is able to utilize a number of different fermentable carbohydrates as an energy, as well as carbon, source. The genome codes for proteins that aid in the breakdown of xylan, levan, pectin, starch, and other polysaccharides (2). Interestingly, while the presence of genes which commonly code for cellusomes, protein complexes which breakdown crystalline cellulose, has been detected, the organism is unable to grow solely on cellulose substrates (7).
Considerable research has been invested into metabolic pathways of Clostridium acetobutylicum in order to improve industrial fermentation operations. The metabolic pathways which produce industrial useful solvents are most notable in C. acetobutylicum. The solvents acetone, acetate, butanol, butyrate, and ethanol are all derived from the common precursor, acetyl-CoA (2). In addition to these products, CO2 and H2 are produced (1).
Mutants which do not produce acetone or alcohol, such as mutant M5 of strain C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824 have been shown to lack of three enzymes in vitro: butyraldehyde dehydrogenase (BYDH), acetoacetate decarboxylase(AADC), and acetoacetyl-coenzyme A:acetate/butyrate:coenzyme A-transferase (CoAT). These enzymes are coded for on the plasmid within the sol operon by the following genes: AADC (adc), CoAT (ctfA, ctfB) and BYDH (aad).
The organism is also capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen after determination using labeled Nitrogen isotope. Another bacterium in the Clostridium family, Clostridium pasteurianum was first identified as being capable of nitrogen fixation and the genes involved in the process were sequenced. After sequencing, C. acetobutylicum ATCC 824, a series of genes very similar to the nitrogen fixing genes in C. pasteurianum were found, further confirming the bacterium's ability to utilize atmospheric nitrogen.
Cell Structure and Development
Cell structure and development is characterized by the development of an endospore when exposed to unfavorable conditions. Anaerobic conditions, formation of organic byproducts, and dissipation of the proton gradient outside the cytoplasmic membrane all lead to sporulation. This is in contrast to the other model organism of endospore formation, Bacillus subtilis, which forms endospores due to limitation of nutrients.
C. acetobutylicum has peritrichous flagella (flagella which cover the entire surface of the cell). Increased motility of the bacteria have been implicated in increased solvent production due to chemotaxis. Attractants include butyric acid and sugar. Notable repellents include acetone, butanol, and ethanol. This mechanism is logical in allowing the cell to find nutrients and move away from byproducts produced by its own metabolism.
Ecology
Describe any interactions with other organisms (included eukaryotes), contributions to the environment, effect on environment, etc.
Pathology
C. acetobutylicum is completely benign to both plants and animals, however, many other species in the Clostridium genus are known pathogens, including: Clostridium difficile, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tetani, and Clostridium perfringen. In particular, C. botulinum and C. tetani, produce some of the most deadly neurotoxins known.
C. acetobutylicum has been found in the human colon, however, it is not known to be a part of normal human flora. In addition, because the organism does not appear to be toxic to mammals through the production of intracellular or extracellular substances, the organism would have to be present in enormous quantities to produces any threat.
The only issue of pathology with C. acetobutylicum is acquiring genes from pathogenic Clostridium such as C. tetani or C. botulinum. While there are no reported cases of C. acetobutylicum acquiring these genes, there have been incidents in the literature in which other Clostridium species have caused infant botulism with toxins very similar to those present in C. botulinum. The similarity of the toxins suggest that the normally non-toxigenic Clostridium strain acquired toxin-coding genes from C. botulinum, which are likely present on a plasmid.
How does this organism cause disease? Human, animal, plant hosts? Virulence factors, as well as patient symptoms.
Application to Biotechnology
Does this organism produce any useful compounds or enzymes? What are they and how are they used?
Current Research
C. acetobutylicum has been the focus of research as a specific mechanism of delivery of therapeutic drugs to cancerous regions of the body. C. acetobutylicum is necessarily anaerobic and therefore intravenous injection of spores will result in germination only in hypoxic regions of solid tumors in the body. Genetic manipulation of C. acetobutylicum in order to produce enzymes which will activate pro drugs within the tumorous region provides an extremely specific delivery mechanism to these tumor sites.
Hydrogen gas production via C. acetobutylicum as an alternative energy source.
Butanol fermentation via new patented process in replacement to ABE process.
References
Taxonomy:NCBI
(1) Cato, E.P., W.L. George, and S.M. Finegold. 1986. Genus Clostridium, pp. 1141-1200. In: P. H. A. Sneath et al. (eds.), Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Vol. 2. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD.
(2) Nolling J et al., "Genome sequence and comparative analysis of the solvent-producing bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum.", J Bacteriol, 2001 Aug;183(16):4823-38.
(3) Jones, D. T., and D. R. Woods. 1986. Acetone-butanol fermentation revisited. Microbiol. Rev. 50:484-524.
(4) Cornillot, E., R. V. Nair, E. T. Papoutsakis, and P. Soucaille. 1997. The genes for butanol and acetone formation in Clostridium acetobutylicum ATCC 824 reside on a large plasmid whose loss leads to degeneration of the strain. J. Bacteriol. 179:5442-5447
(5) Keis, S., Shaheen, R., and Jones, D.T. "Emended descriptions of Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii, and descriptions of Clostridium saccharoperbutylacetonicum sp. nov. and Clostridium saccharobutylicum sp. nov." Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol. (2001) 51:2095-2103.
(6) Kawasaki, S., Y. Watamura, M. Ono, T. Watanabe, K. Takeda, and Y. Niimura. 2005. Adaptive responses to oxygen stress in obligatory anaerobes Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium aminovalericum. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 71:8442-8450.
(7) Fabrice Sabathe, Anne Belaıch, Philippe Soucaille (2002) Characterization of the cellulolytic complex (cellulosome) of Clostridium acetobutylicum FEMS Microbiology Letters 217 (1), 15–22.
Cornillot E, Soucaille P. Solvent forming genes in Clostridia. Nature. 1996;380:489.
P. Durre and C. Hollergschwandner, Initiation of endospore formation in Clostridium acetobutylicum, Anaerobe 10 (2004), pp. 69–74.
Gimenez, J.A. and H. Sugiyama. 1988. Comparison of toxins of Clostridium butyricum and Clostridium botulinum type E. Infection and Immunity 56:926-929.
Gutierrez, Noemi A., Maddox, Ian S. Role of Chemotaxis in Solvent Production by Clostridium acetobutylicum Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1987 53: 1924-1927
Chen, J.S., Toth, J., and Kasap, M. (2001) Nitrogen-fixation genes and nitrogenase activity in Clostridium acetobutylicum and Clostridium beijerinckii. J Ind Microbiol Biotechnol 27: 281–286.
Nuyts S, Van Mellaert L, Theys J, Landuyt W, Lambin P, and Anne J. Clostridium spores for tumor-specific drug delivery. Anticancer Drugs. 2002 Feb;13(2):115-25.
Edited by Mark Hower, student of Rachel Larsen and Kit Pogliano