Moraxella catarrhalis pathogenesis

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University of Oklahoma Study Abroad Microbiology in Arezzo, Italy[1]

Scanning electron microscope image of M. catarrhalis. From: microbiologyinpictures.com [2]

Etiology/Bacteriology

Taxonomy

| Domain = Bacteria | Phylum = Proteobacteria | Class = Gammaproteobacteria | Order = Pseudomonadales | Family = Moraxellaceae | Genus = 'Moraxella' | Species = 'M. catarrhalis'

NCBI: Taxonomy Genome: Genome

Description

Moraxella catarrhalis is a gram negative, diplococcus, aerobic infectious pathogen that is a common cause of upper respitory, middle ear, and eye infections. It is resistant to many ß-lactam drugs such as penicillin, amoxicillin, and ampicillin. 'M. catarrhalis' can be found commensally in the respiratory tract of some people, living without infections symptoms or promoting host immune response. In adults, the rate of colonization seems to be around 3% of healthy adult population [1]. This rate seems to be much higher in children, especially in infants in their first year of life. Depending on factors such as socioeconomic background, climate, and location, colonization rates have varied anywhere from 28% in Sweden, to 100% of Austrailian Aborigines [2,3]. It is estimated that M. catarrhalis causes nearly four million cases of middle ear infection a year which, while not particularly life threatening, places a burden of nearly two billion dollars on the US health care system [4]. There are two distinctive strains of M. catarrhalis: serosensitive, which seems to be less virulent, and seroresistant, which has complement resistance and adherance mechanisms that make it particularly virulent [5].

Pathogenesis

Transmission/Reservoirs

Because of its ability to live commensally, the spread of M. catarrhalis is generally from person to person in a hospital setting, or nosocomially [6]. Infections seem to occur more in persons with complications of the respiratory system such as COPD or infants with underdeveloped immune systems. Additionally, if a patient is diagnosed with symptoms of an infection, it can be difficult to determine if M. catarrhalis is the cause due to its ability to live commensally, and as similar symptoms can arise through infections from S. pneumoniae and H. influenzae.

Incubation/Colonization

The incubation period of M. catarrhalis is not well understood. This is because it is a commensal organism in many persons and can live asymptomatically for a long period of time. However, this suggests that it is an opportunistic pathogen because it will show symptoms in those who have undergone significant stress to their nasopharynyx such as patients with COPD.
It is believed that bacterial stress such as heat shock could cause activation of pathogenic mechanisms within M. catarrhalis [7]. This type of reaction is well documented in other organisms like E. Coli, B. Subtilis, and S. aureus. This may account for the prevalence of the disease during the colder seasons such as fall and winter. It has been found that prolongued exposure to conditions at 26°C increases the abundance of mRNA transripts coding for adhesion molecules associated with the pathogenicity of M. catarrhalis [8].

Epidemiology

M. catarrhalis can be a commensal organism found in the respiratory tract of young children and infants, and in a small percentage of adults depending on factors such as location, age and health. If symptomatic, it commonly presents as otitis media, or infection of the middle ear, in children and as an upper respiratory infection in adults. Because of widely varying colonization rates thoughout studies, more information must be gathered to understand these processes [9].

Virulence Factors

Antibiotic Resistance

Since the discovery of a β-lactamase-positive strain of M. catarrhalis, the resistance of the species to β-lactam drugs has increased at a rate much greater than other bacterial species. More than 90% of known isolates are β-lactamase-positive [10].

References

1. Jousimies-Somer HR, Savolainen S, Ylikoski JS: Comparison of the nasal bacterial floras in two groups of healthy subjects and in patients with acute maxillary sinusitis. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1989. 28:2736–2743.

2. Aniansson G, Alm B, Andersson B, Larsson P, Nylen O, Peterson H, Rigner P, Svanborg M, Svanborg C: Nasopharyngeal colonization during the first year of life. J. Infect. Dis. 1992. 165:S38–S42.

3. Leach AJ, Boswell JB, Asche V, Nienhuys TG, Mathews JD: Bacterial colonization of the nasopharynx predicts very early onset and persistence of otitis media in Australian aboriginal infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 1994. 13:983–989.

4. Klein JO: Otitis media. Clin. Infect. Dis. 1994. 19:823–833.

5. Wirth T, Morelli G, Kusecek B, van Belkum A, van der Schee C, Meyer A, Achtman M: The rise and spread of a new pathogen: seroresistant Moraxella catarrhalis. Genome Res. 2007. 17:11:1647-56.

6. Richards SJ, Greening AP, Enright MC, Morgan MG, McKenzie H: Outbreak of Moraxella catarrhalis in a respiratory unit. Thorax 1993. 48:91-92.

7. Aebi C: Moraxella catarrhalis - pathogen or commensal? Adv Exp Med Biol. 2011. 697:107-16.

8. Spaniol V, Troller R, Aebi C: Physiologic cold shock increases adherence of Moraxella catarrhalis to and secretion of interleukin 8 in human upper respiratory tract epithelial cells. J Infect Dis. 2009. 200:1593–1601.

9. Karalusa R, Campagnari A: Moraxella catarrhalis: a review of an important human mucosal pathogen. Microbes and Infection 2000. 2:5:547-559.

10. Felmingham D, Washington J: Trends in the antimicrobial susceptibility of bacterial respiratory tract pathogens--findings of the Alexander Project 1992-1996. J. Chemother. 1999. 11:5–21.

Created by Robertson Bootes Beasley, student of Tyrrell Conway at the University of Oklahoma.