Winemaking Affects Aquatic Ecosystem
Winemaking Process and Runoff
In vinification, the grapes are first grown, then harvested. Grape juices are then fermented and treated. The quality of wine is heavily dependent on the grapes used.[1] In order to produce high quality wine while lowering production costs, vintners need to find economic methods to aid grape growth. Fungus is a common cause of disease in grape species, and can lead to severe economic loss.[2]
To protect grapevines against fungal infections, winemakers use a fungicide called Bordeaux Mixture.[3] The Bordeaux Mixture is composed of copper(II) sulfate (CuSO4), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2), and water. This combination is highly effective and long-lasting. Bordeaux Mixture enables cupric ion-mediated inhibition of enzymes involved in fungal spore formation.[4] However, the Bordeaux Mixture is also more phytotoxic than other fungicides.[5] Due to the solubility of copper(II) sulfate, Bordeaux Mixture is susceptible to runoff.[6]
In 2009, the wine producing province of Champagne in France contained exceptionally high copper content in its water systems, with the mean of 53.6 μg/dm3 of copper in basin water samples collected locally, and 24% of samples reached over 100 g/dm3 of copper content according to an ecological survey (Banas, et al., 2010). This presents a severe issue to both the aquatic ecosystem and human health, as long-term exposure to copper contaminated foods can lead to chronic diseases (European Food Safety Authority, 2021). Recent studies and bioassays conducted has been focused on the threshold level and control of copper levels, and subsequent effect and recovery of aquatic ecosystems.
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- ↑ Amerine, M. A., 2021. Wine. [Online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/topic/wine [Accessed 20 November 2021].
- ↑ University of Maryland, 2021. Grape Diseases. [Online] Available at: https://extension.umd.edu/resource/grape-diseases [Accessed 20 November 2021].
- ↑ Schilder, A., 2010. Fungicide properties and weather conditions. [Online] Available at: https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/fungicide_properties_and_weather_conditions [Accessed 11 November 2021].
- ↑ Liu, H. et al., 2015. Copper Ion Elicits Defense Response in Arabidopsis thaliana by Activating Salicylate- and Ethylene-Dependent Signaling Pathways. Molecular Plant, 8(10), pp. 1550-1553.
- ↑ Broome, J. C. & Donaldson, D. R., 2010. Bordeaux Mixture. [Online] Available at: http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7481.html [Accessed 20 November 2021].
- ↑ Pompermaier, A. et al., 2021. Water and suspended sediment runoff from vineyard watersheds affecting the behavior and physiology of zebrafish. Science of The Total Environment, 757(1).
- ↑ Hodgkin, J. and Partridge, F.A. "Caenorhabditis elegans meets microsporidia: the nematode killers from Paris." 2008. PLoS Biology 6:2634-2637.
- ↑ Bartlett et al.: Oncolytic viruses as therapeutic cancer vaccines. Molecular Cancer 2013 12:103.
- ↑ Lee G, Low RI, Amsterdam EA, Demaria AN, Huber PW, Mason DT. Hemodynamic effects of morphine and nalbuphine in acute myocardial infarction. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 1981 May;29(5):576-81.
Edited by Sizhuo Liu, student of Joan Slonczewski for BIOL 116 Information in Living Systems, 2021, Kenyon College.
