Oil-Eating Bacteria: A Tool for Bioremediation: Difference between revisions

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==Section==
==Section==
[[Image: Myxococcus.png|thumb|300px|right|This illustration depicts a three-dimensional (3D), computer-generated image, of a group of Gram-positive, Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus) bacteria. The photo credit for this image belongs to Alissa Eckert, who is a medical illustrator at the [http://www.cdc.gov/ CDC].]]
[[Image: Myxococcus.png|thumb|300px|right|This illustration depicts a three-dimensional (3D), computer-generated image, of a group of Gram-positive, Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus) bacteria. The photo credit for this image belongs to Alissa Eckert, who is a medical illustrator at the [http://www.cdc.gov/ CDC].]]
<br>By Alice Tillman<br>
<br>By Ansley Grider<br>
<br>At right is a sample image insertion.  It works for any image uploaded anywhere to MicrobeWiki.<br><br>The insertion code consists of:
<br>At right is a sample image insertion.  It works for any image uploaded anywhere to MicrobeWiki.<br><br>The insertion code consists of:
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<br><b>Superscript:</b> Fe<sup>3+</sup>
<br><b>Superscript:</b> Fe<sup>3+</sup>


<br>Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is an RNA retrovirus which attacks the immune system of the infected individual. There are two main strains of HIV: HIV-1 and HIV-2. HIV-1 is more prevalent and pathogenic. HIV belongs to a type of retroviruses which are called lentiviruses. Lentiviruses infect their hosts over a very long period of time and it can take years for symptoms to manifest. Over time, HIV can progress into Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome or AIDS. HIV/AIDS is characterized by a decline in the number of CD4+ T-cells and an increased susceptibility to other infections.  
<br>The use of petroleum, or crude oil, has been increasing since the industrial revolution (Villela et al., 2019). Each year, three million tons of oil enters the ocean (Brooijmans et al., 2009). Oil can pollute environments and cause harm to species who inhabit areas contaminated by oil (Villela et al., 2019). Therefore, there is a desperate need for environmentally-friendly techniques for cleaning up oil-polluted areas. One such technique involves bioremediation, which is the use of microbes to convert toxic pollutants, such as anthropogenic oil, into non-toxic pollutants (Ezezika and Singer, 2010). Recent scientific work has found that some bacteria (Oleispira, Oleiphilus, Thalassolituus, Alcanivorax and Cycloclasticus) can feed on oil due to their hydrocarbon‐degrading abilities (Brooijmans et al., 2009).
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<br>Evolution has played a role in the formation of species capable of degrading oil. Oils are naturally found in environments from seeps in the seafloor and from fatty acids and lipids produced by plants and animals (Yakimov et al, 2007). This has led to some bacteria evolving to produce enzymes capable of breaking down oils, which allows these bacteria to colonize oil niches (Yakimov et al, 2007). The enzymes produced by hydrocarbon‐degrading bacteria often break down the two major compounds found in oil: alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (Brooijmans et al., 2009).
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<br>The HIV genome consists of single-stranded, positive-sense mRNA, with three main open reading frames (gag, pol, and env). The viral capsid of HIV includes its genetic material, as well as reverse transcriptase, protease, and integrase. CD4 is the primary receptor targeted by HIV. CD4 is commonly found on helper T-lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, and monocytes.  The virus also has to bind a co-receptor, CCR5, on the target cell in order to gain entry the cell. Once inside the cell, HIV uses its own reverse transcriptase to convert its mRNA into DNA and then inserts itself into the host genome, where it takes over the cell machinery to direct its own replication.
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<br>As of 2019, there are an estimate 38 million people currently living with HIV world-wide. Among the HIV-positive population, approximately 81% have received a diagnosis for HIV and 26 million HIV-positive people receive anti-retroviral therapy. Although HIV remains an enormous challenge to public health, significant improvements have been made in both preventing the spread of HIV and treating the infection. Over the last two decades, new infections have declined by 39% and deaths by 51%. This is due, in large part, to the creation of drugs known as anti-retroviral therapy (ART). ART consists of a combination of three drugs, which each target different components of the HIV life-cycle. Because HIV has such a HIV mutation rate, it is necessary to use a combination of different medications to ensure protection of a patient. Despite tremendous efforts, there still does not exist a vaccine for HIV. Currently, efforts are underway to develop a number of different types of vaccines for HIV.
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Sample citations: <ref name=aa>[http://www.plosbiology.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000005&representation=PDF Hodgkin, J. and Partridge, F.A. "<i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i> meets microsporidia: the nematode killers from Paris." 2008. PLoS Biology 6:2634-2637.]</ref>
Sample citations: <ref name=aa>[http://www.plosbiology.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.1000005&representation=PDF Hodgkin, J. and Partridge, F.A. "<i>Caenorhabditis elegans</i> meets microsporidia: the nematode killers from Paris." 2008. PLoS Biology 6:2634-2637.]</ref>

Revision as of 20:04, 19 March 2021

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Section

File:Myxococcus.png
This illustration depicts a three-dimensional (3D), computer-generated image, of a group of Gram-positive, Streptococcus agalactiae (group B Streptococcus) bacteria. The photo credit for this image belongs to Alissa Eckert, who is a medical illustrator at the CDC.


By Ansley Grider

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The insertion code consists of:
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Legend/credit: Electron micrograph of the Ebola Zaire virus. This was the first photo ever taken of the virus, on 10/13/1976. By Dr. F.A. Murphy, now at U.C. Davis, then at the CDC. Every image requires a link to the source.
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The use of petroleum, or crude oil, has been increasing since the industrial revolution (Villela et al., 2019). Each year, three million tons of oil enters the ocean (Brooijmans et al., 2009). Oil can pollute environments and cause harm to species who inhabit areas contaminated by oil (Villela et al., 2019). Therefore, there is a desperate need for environmentally-friendly techniques for cleaning up oil-polluted areas. One such technique involves bioremediation, which is the use of microbes to convert toxic pollutants, such as anthropogenic oil, into non-toxic pollutants (Ezezika and Singer, 2010). Recent scientific work has found that some bacteria (Oleispira, Oleiphilus, Thalassolituus, Alcanivorax and Cycloclasticus) can feed on oil due to their hydrocarbon‐degrading abilities (Brooijmans et al., 2009).

Evolution has played a role in the formation of species capable of degrading oil. Oils are naturally found in environments from seeps in the seafloor and from fatty acids and lipids produced by plants and animals (Yakimov et al, 2007). This has led to some bacteria evolving to produce enzymes capable of breaking down oils, which allows these bacteria to colonize oil niches (Yakimov et al, 2007). The enzymes produced by hydrocarbon‐degrading bacteria often break down the two major compounds found in oil: alkanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) (Brooijmans et al., 2009).


Sample citations: [1] [2]

A citation code consists of a hyperlinked reference within "ref" begin and end codes.
To repeat the citation for other statements, the reference needs to have a names: "<ref name=aa>"
The repeated citation works like this, with a back slash.[1]

Section 1

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Every point of information REQUIRES CITATION using the citation tool shown above.

Section 2

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Section 3

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Section 4

Conclusion

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Hodgkin, J. and Partridge, F.A. "Caenorhabditis elegans meets microsporidia: the nematode killers from Paris." 2008. PLoS Biology 6:2634-2637.
  2. ↑ Bartlett et al.: Oncolytic viruses as therapeutic cancer vaccines. Molecular Cancer 2013 12:103.



Authored for BIOL 238 Microbiology, taught by Joan Slonczewski, 2021, Kenyon College.

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