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[[Image:Map of Dallol.jpeg|thumb|300px|left| Map of the Dallol region.<ref name= Kotopoulou/>]]
[[Image:Map of Dallol.jpeg|thumb|300px|left| Map of the Dallol region.<ref name= Kotopoulou/>]]


Located at the junction of the Nubian, Somali, and Arabian plates, the Danakil Depression is part of the East African Rift system and experiences high tectonic and geothermal activity.<ref name= Lopez-Garcia/><ref name= Cavalazzi> [https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ast.2018.1926 Cavalazzi, B., Barbieri, R., Gomez, F., Capaccioni, B., Olsson-Francis, K., Pondrelli, M., et al. (2019). The Dallol Geothermal Area, Northern Afar (Ethiopia)-An Exceptional Planetary Field Analog on Earth. Astrobiology, 19(4), 553-578. Review.] </ref> The Depression exists at the northern end of a line of Holocene-age active volcanoes that run north-northwest to south-southeast.<ref name= Lopez-Garcia/> While not a proper volcano itself, its physical appearance, geothermal activity, and location along this volcanic range has caused the Dallol dome (within the Depression) to sometimes be referred to as the "Dallol volcano" or "Dallol protovolcano".<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Lopez-Garcia/> Despite its occasional designation as a volcano, the Dallol dome does not experience eruptions or have volcanic outcrops.<ref name= Belilla/>
Located at the junction of the Nubian, Somali, and Arabian plates, the Danakil Depression is part of the East African Rift system and experiences high tectonic and geothermal activity.<ref name= Lopez-Garcia/><ref name= Cavalazzi> [https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/full/10.1089/ast.2018.1926 Cavalazzi, B., Barbieri, R., Gomez, F., Capaccioni, B., Olsson-Francis, K., Pondrelli, M., et al. (2019). The Dallol Geothermal Area, Northern Afar (Ethiopia)-An Exceptional Planetary Field Analog on Earth. Astrobiology, 19(4), 553-578. Review.] </ref> The Depression exists at the northern end of a line of Holocene-age active volcanoes that run north-northwest to south-southeast.<ref name= Lopez-Garcia/> While not a proper volcano itself, its physical appearance, geothermal activity, and location along this volcanic range has caused the Dallol dome (within the Depression) to sometimes be referred to as the "Dallol volcano" or "Dallol protovolcano".<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Lopez-Garcia/> Despite its occasional designation as a volcano, the Dallol dome does not experience eruptions or have volcanic outcrops.<ref name= Belilla/> <br><br>


The Danakil Depression is approximately 120 m below sea level with the Dallol dome rising up about 40 m from the Depression. <ref name= Belilla/> The area around the dome is a vast salt plain composed of 2 km thick evaporites (enriched in potassium, manganese, iron, magnesium, and zinc) deposited by repeated transgressions of the Red Sea.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Tadesse> [https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.galter.northwestern.edu/science/article/pii/S0899536203000484?via%3Dihub Tadesse, S., Milesi, J. P., & Deschamps, Y. (2003). Geology and mineral potential of Ethiopia: a note on geology and mineral map of Ethiopia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 36(4), 273-313. Article.] </ref> The continental crust at Danakil is less than 15 km thick, a result of variable rifting over much of the Afar region.<ref name= Cavalazzi/> A large variety of hydro-geothermal features are found at Dallol including hydrothermal springs, brine pools, geysers, and salt chimneys, pillars, and terraces.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> These features are formed from evaporation of supersaturated brines and are highly dynamic.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> The number of active springs changes year to year and some pools appear and disappear over periods of days to weeks.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Cavalazzi/> A number of unique precipitate formations have also been recorded including, but not limited to, flower-like structures, eggshell-like structures, spherules, and thick crusts cracked into polygons.<ref name= Kotopoulou/>
The Danakil Depression is approximately 120 m below sea level with the Dallol dome rising up about 40 m from the Depression. <ref name= Belilla/> The area around the dome is a vast salt plain composed of 2 km thick evaporites (enriched in potassium, manganese, iron, magnesium, and zinc) deposited by repeated transgressions of the Red Sea.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Tadesse> [https://www-sciencedirect-com.ezproxy.galter.northwestern.edu/science/article/pii/S0899536203000484?via%3Dihub Tadesse, S., Milesi, J. P., & Deschamps, Y. (2003). Geology and mineral potential of Ethiopia: a note on geology and mineral map of Ethiopia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 36(4), 273-313. Article.] </ref> The continental crust at Danakil is less than 15 km thick, a result of variable rifting over much of the Afar region.<ref name= Cavalazzi/> A large variety of hydro-geothermal features are found at Dallol including hydrothermal springs, brine pools, geysers, and salt chimneys, pillars, and terraces.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> These features are formed from evaporation of supersaturated brines and are highly dynamic.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> The number of active springs changes year to year and some pools appear and disappear over periods of days to weeks.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Cavalazzi/> A number of unique precipitate formations have also been recorded including, but not limited to, flower-like structures, eggshell-like structures, spherules, and thick crusts cracked into polygons.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> <br><br>


[[Image:Dallol water samples.jpg|thumb|330px|right| Water samples collected from the colorful pools at the Dallol Dome. The different colors reflect different oxidation states of metals and concentrations of dissolved compounds.<ref name= Belilla/>]]
[[Image:Dallol water samples.jpg|thumb|330px|right| Water samples collected from the colorful pools at the Dallol Dome. The different colors reflect different oxidation states of metals and concentrations of dissolved compounds.<ref name= Belilla/>]]


Due to the area's heterogeneity, water samples collected from Dallol vary in temperature, pH, salinity, and solute composition and concentrations. Though temperatures over 50°C, pH < 0, and salinities over 30% are common.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Belilla/><ref name= Cavalazzi/> Several locations within the Dallol hydrothermal system have been studied including the hot springs and pools of the Dallol dome, Gaet'ale Lake (also called Yellow Lake) 4 km southeast of the dome, and Black Lake less than 2.5 km southwest of the dome.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Gomez/><ref name= Belilla/><ref name= Cavalazzi/> At the dome hot springs, the anoxic, hyperacidic, iron-rich source water from vents had recorded temperatures of 105-108°C.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> As the water emerges, the temperature quickly decreases causing supersaturation and rapid halite precipitation. The water flows into pools, moving progressively further away from the spring, falling to temperatures of around 30°C. These waters have pH values of 0 or lower and salinities ranging from 37%-42%.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Belilla/>  
Due to the area's heterogeneity, water samples collected from Dallol vary in temperature, pH, salinity, and solute composition and concentrations. Though temperatures over 50°C, pH < 0, and salinities over 30% are common.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Belilla/><ref name= Cavalazzi/> Several locations within the Dallol hydrothermal system have been studied including the hot springs and pools of the Dallol dome, Gaet'ale Lake (also called Yellow Lake) 4 km southeast of the dome, and Black Lake less than 2.5 km southwest of the dome.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Gomez/><ref name= Belilla/><ref name= Cavalazzi/> At the dome hot springs, the anoxic, hyperacidic, iron-rich source water from vents had recorded temperatures of 105-108°C.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> As the water emerges, the temperature quickly decreases causing supersaturation and rapid halite precipitation. The water flows into pools, moving progressively further away from the spring, falling to temperatures of around 30°C. These waters have pH values of 0 or lower and salinities ranging from 37%-42%.<ref name= Kotopoulou/><ref name= Belilla/> <br><br>


[[Image:Dallol pool temperatures and pH.jpeg |thumb|300px|right| Green-colored pools at the Dallol Dome. Each numbered pool is progressively farther away from the hydrothermal spring where the water originated. Each pool's temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration are recorded along with the quantities of Fe<sup>2+</sup> and Fe<sup>3+</sup>.<ref name= Kotopoulou/>]]
[[Image:Dallol pool temperatures and pH.jpeg |thumb|300px|right| Green-colored pools at the Dallol Dome. Each numbered pool is progressively farther away from the hydrothermal spring where the water originated. Each pool's temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration are recorded along with the quantities of Fe<sup>2+</sup> and Fe<sup>3+</sup>.<ref name= Kotopoulou/>]]


A well-known feature of the Dallol pools is their bright colors including shades of greens, blues, yellows, and browns.These colors have been attributed mainly to iron redox chemistry. High concentrations of dissolved iron (22.5 g/L), sulfates (~5200 ppm), and chlorides (>200 g/L) contribute to the formation of colorful iron hydroxo-complexes, iron chloro-complexes, and iron sulfates. Spring water start out with high concentrations of ferrous iron (Fe<sup>2+</sup>) that is slowly oxidized (as the water equilibrates with the atmosphere) to ferric iron (Fe<sup>3+</sup>), causing pool waters to move from bright green to dark green to brown. Outside the water, thin layers of precipitated iron-(oxy)hydroxides and iron sulfates over the halite structure give them a similarly colorful appearance.<ref name= Kotopoulou/>
A well-known feature of the Dallol pools is their bright colors including shades of greens, blues, yellows, and browns.These colors have been attributed mainly to iron redox chemistry. High concentrations of dissolved iron (22.5 g/L), sulfates (~5200 ppm), and chlorides (>200 g/L) contribute to the formation of colorful iron hydroxo-complexes, iron chloro-complexes, and iron sulfates. Spring water start out with high concentrations of ferrous iron (Fe<sup>2+</sup>) that is slowly oxidized (as the water equilibrates with the atmosphere) to ferric iron (Fe<sup>3+</sup>), causing pool waters to move from bright green to dark green to brown. Outside the water, thin layers of precipitated iron-(oxy)hydroxides and iron sulfates over the halite structure give them a similarly colorful appearance.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> <br><br>


While the age of the Dallol Dome is not known, Black Lake and Gaet'ale Lake appeared after phreatic explosions in 1926 and 2005, respectively.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> For Black Lake, Cavalazzi et al. recorded an average temperature of 56°C and a pH of 1.4.<ref name= Cavalazzi/> Belilla et al. found slightly different conditions at 70°C and pH 3 along with salinities >70%.<ref name= Belilla/> For Gaet'ale Lake, a temperature of 55°C and a pH of 3 were measured by the former, while 40°C and pH 1.8 were recorded by the latter (as well as salinities ≥ 50%).<ref name= Cavalazzi/><ref name= Belilla/> Both lakes contain high concentrations of calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) and magnesium (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) (particularly magnesium chloride), and Gaet'ale Lake continuously bubbles up toxic gas.<ref name= Belilla/>
While the age of the Dallol Dome is not known, Black Lake and Gaet'ale Lake appeared after phreatic explosions in 1926 and 2005, respectively.<ref name= Kotopoulou/> For Black Lake, Cavalazzi et al. recorded an average temperature of 56°C and a pH of 1.4.<ref name= Cavalazzi/> Belilla et al. found slightly different conditions at 70°C and pH 3 along with salinities >70%.<ref name= Belilla/> For Gaet'ale Lake, a temperature of 55°C and a pH of 3 were measured by the former, while 40°C and pH 1.8 were recorded by the latter (as well as salinities ≥ 50%).<ref name= Cavalazzi/><ref name= Belilla/> Both lakes contain high concentrations of calcium (Ca<sup>2+</sup>) and magnesium (Mg<sup>2+</sup>) (particularly magnesium chloride), and Gaet'ale Lake continuously bubbles up toxic gas.<ref name= Belilla/>
<br><br><br><br>


==Dallol Microbial Ecology==
==Dallol Microbial Ecology==

Revision as of 04:32, 2 June 2020

Dallol Hydrothermal System

Overview

Pools and terraces of the Dallol hydrothermal system.[1]

By Rachel So
Date updated: May 29, 2020

(Introduce environment. Give key information relevant to the microbial ecology of the environment.)

The Dallol hydrothermal system is located in the northern part of the Danakil Depression in the Afar Triangle (also called Afar triple junction or Afar Depression) of northeastern Ethiopia.[1][2] Dallol is a desert that receives less than 200 mm of rainfall a year and holds the record as the hottest location on the planet (mean annual temperature of 34.5°C).[3][4] Its hydrothermal pools form a unique hyperthermal (25-110°C), hypersaline (33% to > 50% salinity), and hyperacidic (pH < -1.5 to 6.0) polyextreme environment that pushes the limits of life.[5] In addition, the pools contain high concentrations of chlorides, sulfates, and dissolved iron (both Fe2+ and Fe3+), the last giving them their colorful appearance.[1]




About the Environment

Map of the Dallol region.[1]

Located at the junction of the Nubian, Somali, and Arabian plates, the Danakil Depression is part of the East African Rift system and experiences high tectonic and geothermal activity.[3][6] The Depression exists at the northern end of a line of Holocene-age active volcanoes that run north-northwest to south-southeast.[3] While not a proper volcano itself, its physical appearance, geothermal activity, and location along this volcanic range has caused the Dallol dome (within the Depression) to sometimes be referred to as the "Dallol volcano" or "Dallol protovolcano".[1][3] Despite its occasional designation as a volcano, the Dallol dome does not experience eruptions or have volcanic outcrops.[5]

The Danakil Depression is approximately 120 m below sea level with the Dallol dome rising up about 40 m from the Depression. [5] The area around the dome is a vast salt plain composed of 2 km thick evaporites (enriched in potassium, manganese, iron, magnesium, and zinc) deposited by repeated transgressions of the Red Sea.[1][7] The continental crust at Danakil is less than 15 km thick, a result of variable rifting over much of the Afar region.[6] A large variety of hydro-geothermal features are found at Dallol including hydrothermal springs, brine pools, geysers, and salt chimneys, pillars, and terraces.[1] These features are formed from evaporation of supersaturated brines and are highly dynamic.[1] The number of active springs changes year to year and some pools appear and disappear over periods of days to weeks.[1][6] A number of unique precipitate formations have also been recorded including, but not limited to, flower-like structures, eggshell-like structures, spherules, and thick crusts cracked into polygons.[1]

Water samples collected from the colorful pools at the Dallol Dome. The different colors reflect different oxidation states of metals and concentrations of dissolved compounds.[5]

Due to the area's heterogeneity, water samples collected from Dallol vary in temperature, pH, salinity, and solute composition and concentrations. Though temperatures over 50°C, pH < 0, and salinities over 30% are common.[1][5][6] Several locations within the Dallol hydrothermal system have been studied including the hot springs and pools of the Dallol dome, Gaet'ale Lake (also called Yellow Lake) 4 km southeast of the dome, and Black Lake less than 2.5 km southwest of the dome.[1][2][5][6] At the dome hot springs, the anoxic, hyperacidic, iron-rich source water from vents had recorded temperatures of 105-108°C.[1] As the water emerges, the temperature quickly decreases causing supersaturation and rapid halite precipitation. The water flows into pools, moving progressively further away from the spring, falling to temperatures of around 30°C. These waters have pH values of 0 or lower and salinities ranging from 37%-42%.[1][5]

Green-colored pools at the Dallol Dome. Each numbered pool is progressively farther away from the hydrothermal spring where the water originated. Each pool's temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen concentration are recorded along with the quantities of Fe2+ and Fe3+.[1]

A well-known feature of the Dallol pools is their bright colors including shades of greens, blues, yellows, and browns.These colors have been attributed mainly to iron redox chemistry. High concentrations of dissolved iron (22.5 g/L), sulfates (~5200 ppm), and chlorides (>200 g/L) contribute to the formation of colorful iron hydroxo-complexes, iron chloro-complexes, and iron sulfates. Spring water start out with high concentrations of ferrous iron (Fe2+) that is slowly oxidized (as the water equilibrates with the atmosphere) to ferric iron (Fe3+), causing pool waters to move from bright green to dark green to brown. Outside the water, thin layers of precipitated iron-(oxy)hydroxides and iron sulfates over the halite structure give them a similarly colorful appearance.[1]

While the age of the Dallol Dome is not known, Black Lake and Gaet'ale Lake appeared after phreatic explosions in 1926 and 2005, respectively.[1] For Black Lake, Cavalazzi et al. recorded an average temperature of 56°C and a pH of 1.4.[6] Belilla et al. found slightly different conditions at 70°C and pH 3 along with salinities >70%.[5] For Gaet'ale Lake, a temperature of 55°C and a pH of 3 were measured by the former, while 40°C and pH 1.8 were recorded by the latter (as well as salinities ≥ 50%).[6][5] Both lakes contain high concentrations of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) (particularly magnesium chloride), and Gaet'ale Lake continuously bubbles up toxic gas.[5]

Dallol Microbial Ecology

Bacterial and archaeal distribution in the Dallol hydrothermal fields. Water and geological samples collected from Dallol dome ponds, nearby salt plains, Black Lake, Gaet'ale Lake, and Lake Assale.[5]

Much research has been conducted over the past two decades on the geology (e.g. formations, volcanic activity, seismicity) of the Dallol region.[8][9][10] However, studies on the diversity of life at Dallol have only been published in the last few years. Until recently, it was believed that Dallol hosted conditions too harsh for life.[1] New research using next generation sequencing and biomarker analysis suggests that microbial life is indeed present though their spatial distribution and general abundance is relatively low.[5] Belilla et al. identified diverse archaeal and some bacterial taxa at certain sites in the Dallol geothermal system.[5] Water and geological samples were collected from the Dallol dome pools, nearby salt plains, Black Lake, Lake Gaet'ale, and Lake Assale (also Lake Karum; 30 km south of the dome). Sequencing and culturing only found evidence of microbes in the salt plain samples (~30°C, pH ~4-6, ~35% salinity) and in Lake Assale (~24°C, pH ~6.5, 36% salinity), both notably having milder conditions than other areas in Dallol.[5] The majority of sequences identified were archaeal, most of them halophiles with some thermophiles, though bacterial sequences were also found (mostly halophiles). Though not abundant, several archaeal taxa not typically associated with hypersaline environments were also identified including Thermoplasmata, Archaeoglobi, Thaumarchaeota, Crenarchaeota, amongst others. Under optical analysis, many of the cells were found to be very small.

Another study looking at precipitate samples found lipid biomarkers associated with select bacterial taxa including Aquificales, Thermotogales, and Chloroflexi.[11] In terms of metabolisms, Carizzo et al. suggested the presence of pristane and phytane, in the absence of any vegetation, could be due to microbial phototrophy. They also found enriched sulfate and total sulfur δ34S, which they attribute bacterial sulfate reduction. Overall, lipid biomarker evidence from Dallol precipitates suggests recent bacterial metabolism (or very well preserved biosignatures).

In addition to microbial life indicated from gene sequencing and biomarkers, electron microscopy also uncovered several abiotic biomorphs (structures resembling cells) in Dallol water samples.[5] Biomorphs were primarily composed of silica though biomorphs composed of or rich in magnesium, calcium, and sulfur were also detected. Silica-encrustment of cells were also observed alongside biomorphs. Because biomorphs occur in Dallol, Belilla et al. recommended that future studies should incorporate a variety of techniques before claiming the presence of life.[5]

SEM images of cells (left) and silica biomorphs (right) from Dallol. Cells were identified from a sample taken from a salt pan between the Dallol dome base and Black Lake. Biomorphs were identified from a Dallol dome pond. White bars measure 1 μm.[5]













Key Microbial Players

(In all of your systems there will be at least a couple of key microbial players. Describe these in detail. Where do they fall on the tree of life? Are they cultured? What do they do in general and as it relates to your target environment?)

Halobacteria

Part of the phylum Euryarchaeota

Nanohaloarchaea

Part of the phylum Euryarchaeota

Bacterial phyla

Eurkarya phyla

Testing the Limits of Life

(How you expand upon the basics will depend on your environment. Pick a couple or three of interesting subtopics and describe them in detail. Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.)

(pictures of nanohaloarchaea, Belilla or Gomez)

Dallol is an environment that combines temperature, pH, and salinity extremes into a single polyextreme environment, testing where life can exist and where it cannot. The heterogeneity of Dallol offers several sites with varying degrees of each extreme (e.g. Lake Assale vs. Black Lake) for inter-site comparisons.[5] Numerous microbe species living in extreme environments (e.g. thermophiles in high temperatures, acidophiles in low pH, halophiles in high salinity) have been studied[6] as well as some polyextremophiles such as those from thermo-acidic environments[12] and thermo-alkaline environments [13]. Until the recent studies on Dallol, microbes have never been identified in a high temperature, acidic, and high salinity environment.[6] The presence of microbes in Lake Assale and the salt plains, and their absence in the Dallol dome ponds, Black Lake, and Gaet'ale Lake provided some clues about the limits of life.[5] From these samples, two barriers to life have been hypothesized: 1) high chaotropicity and low water activity (due to high Mg2+ concentrations at Black Lake and Gaet'ale Lake), and 2) the co-occurrence of hyperacidity and hypersalinity (found at Dallol dome ponds).[5] In addition, the microbial cells detected using optical techniques are ultrasmall, between 0.1 and 0.2 μm, not easy to isolate using filters not easy to visualize.[2][5]


Analog for Extraterrestrial Environments

The Dallol hydrothermal system has been proposed as an analogue for the environment of Mars.[6]

Anthropological Significance



Conclusion

References

  1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 Kotopoulou, E., Huertas, A. D., Garcia-Ruiz, J. M., Dominguez-Vera, J. M., Lopez-Garcia, J. M., Guerra-Tschuschke, I., & Rull, F. (2019). A Polyextreme Hydrothermal System Controlled by Iron: The Case of Dallol at the Afar Triangle. Acs Earth and Space Chemistry, 3(1), 90-99. Article.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Gomez, F., Cavalazzi, B., Rodriguez, N., Amils, R., Ori, G. G., Olsson-Francis, K., et al. (2019). Ultra-small microorganisms in the polyextreme conditions of the Dallol volcano, Northern Afar, Ethiopia. Scientific Reports, 9, 9. Article.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 Lopez-Garcia, J. M., Moreira, D., Benzerara, K., Grunewald, O., & Lopez-Garcia, P. (2020). Origin and Evolution of the Halo-Volcanic Complex of Dallol: Proto-Volcanism in Northern Afar (Ethiopia). Frontiers in Earth Science, 7, 24. Article.
  4. ↑ Pedgley, D. E. (1967). Air temperature at Dallol Ethiopia. Meteorological Magazine, 96(1142), 265-&. Article.
  5. ↑ 5.00 5.01 5.02 5.03 5.04 5.05 5.06 5.07 5.08 5.09 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 5.20 Belilla, J., Moreira, D., Jardillier, L., Reboul, G., Benzerara, K., Lopez-Garcia, J. M., et al. (2019). Hyperdiverse archaea near life limits at the polyextreme geothermal Dallol area. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3(11), 1552-+. Article.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 Cavalazzi, B., Barbieri, R., Gomez, F., Capaccioni, B., Olsson-Francis, K., Pondrelli, M., et al. (2019). The Dallol Geothermal Area, Northern Afar (Ethiopia)-An Exceptional Planetary Field Analog on Earth. Astrobiology, 19(4), 553-578. Review.
  7. ↑ Tadesse, S., Milesi, J. P., & Deschamps, Y. (2003). Geology and mineral potential of Ethiopia: a note on geology and mineral map of Ethiopia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 36(4), 273-313. Article.
  8. ↑ Hovland, M., Rueslatten, H. G., Johnsen, H. K., Kvamme, B., & Kuznetsova, T. (2006). Salt formation associated with sub-surface boiling and supercritical water. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 23(8), 855-869. Article.
  9. ↑ Carniel, R., Jolis, E. M., & Jones, J. (2010). A geophysical multi-parametric analysis of hydrothermal activity at Dallol, Ethiopia. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 58(5), 812-819. Article.
  10. ↑ Hagos, M., Konka, B., & Ahmed, J. (2016). A preliminary Geological and Generalized Stratigraphy of Western Margin of Northern Afar Depression, Dallol Area, Northern Ethiopia. Momona Ethiopian Journal of Science, 8(1), 1-22. Article.
  11. ↑ Carrizo, D., Sanchez-Garcia, L., Rodriguez, N., & Gomez, F. (2019). Lipid Biomarker and Carbon Stable Isotope Survey on the Dallol Hydrothermal System in Ethiopia. Astrobiology, 19(12), 1474-1489. Article.
  12. ↑ Segerer, A., Langworthy, T. A., & Stetter, K. O. (1988). Thermoplasma-Acidophilym and Thermoplasma-Volcanium sp-nov from solfatara fields. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 10(2), 161-171. Article.
  13. ↑ Mesbah, N. M., & Wiegel, J. (2012). Life under Multiple Extreme Conditions: Diversity and Physiology of the Halophilic Alkalithermophiles. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 78(12), 4074-4082. Review.



Authored for Earth 373 Microbial Ecology, taught by Magdalena Osburn, 2020, NU Earth Page.

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