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Classification

Higher order taxa

Eukaryota; Rhodophyta; Bangiophyceae; Bangiales; Bangiaceae; Bangia

Species

“Bangia-atropurpuea, -fuscopurpurea, -gloiopeltidicola, -maxima, -vermicularis, etc.”

NCBI: [1]

“Bangia”

Description and significance

Bangia, a taxon of red algae (Rhodophyta), can be found in freshwater or marine environments [1][2]. It possesses no flagella and relies on ebb and tide currents for dispersal. They can reproduce sexually or asexually, depending on the range of their environmental temperatures [3]. In commercial settings, marine Bangia, like Bangia fuscopurpurea, has been a popular staple in Chinese dishes [1]. It has been praised for its taste and nutritional value, which includes vitamins, minerals, and high protein content. In addition to its commercial popularity in China, fuscopurpurea prebiotic potentials have been connected to improving human gut health and induction of cell death (apoptosis) in human ovarian cancer [4][5]. While much is known about Bangia, the exact time of its evolution is controversial [1].

[1][2][3][4][5].

Genome structure

The entire genome of Bangia species has yet to be fully sequenced. However, the plasmid of the marine species Bangia sp. OUCPT-01 has been studied. The plasmid genome comprises 196,913 base pairs, with a GC content of 33.5% [6]. Additionally, 73.01% of this species' plasmid comprises genes that code for proteins involved in the photosynthetic processes and energy production (ATP synthesis) [6]. Other interesting proteins encoded in the plasmid are related to CO2 fixation [6]. [6].

Cell structure and metabolic processes

As a red algae, Bangia contains disc-shaped cells that are stacked, filamentous, and uniseriate, or arranged in a single row or layer [6]. The cells are cylindrical shaped and contain chloroplasts. Within the structure of Bangia, archespores are cells that are produced asexually and produce spores. [6] Bangia can exist natively in freshwater and marine systems, and both freshwater and marine Bangia cells contain similar cell wall compositions, consisting of carbohydrates like porphyran [7]. This wide range in ecology is also due to the reliance of Bangia on ebb and tide currents, as it contains no flagella [6].

Bangia performs photosynthesis, making it a phototroph and an autotroph [6][8]. Additionally, during photosynthesis, Bangia is responsible for producing organic molecules, which serve as electron donors to its electron transport chain [6]. Bangia is a photoorganoautotroph.

Bangia produces two phenolic acids, methyl 2,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate (HBP2) and methyl 2-(3-hydroxyphenyl)acetate (HBP3), and well as a derivative, butyl isobutyl phthalate (HBP1), that contain neuroprotective effects on a tested in vitro model of Parkinson’s disease, which can be applicable to humans and the fight against neurodegenerative diseases [9]. Production of polysaccharides within Bangia, specifically sulfated galactans, can also benefit humans, as they can have prebiotic potential within the human gut microbiota [10]. [6 7 8 9 10].

Ecology

Bangia species can be found in marine and freshwater environments. However, phylogenetic studies indicate that marine Bangia populations existed before freshwater Bangia emerged [8]. Marine Bangia live mainly in the upper intertidal zone, while freshwater Bangia are in different rivers worldwide [6][8]. Its broad ecological environment also plays into its wide range of habitats - from arctic to tropical zones - resulting in tolerance to various environmental temperatures, UV radiation, and salinity levels [6]. Physical differences in conserved genes, such as ribulose-1,5-biphosphate carboxylase ( rbcL) and nucleus-encoded small subunit ribosomal ribonucleic acid (SSU rRNA), as well as metabolic differences in the regulation of salt concentrations, contribute to the broad environmental adaptability of Bangia [3]. Bangia is not a pathogen and, therefore, does not have a mode of pathogenesis or create disease in higher organisms. Bangia can reproduce sexually or asexually and does not need to rely on humans, animals, and plants as hosts [3]. [3][6][8].

Pathology

Bangia is not a pathogen and, therefore, does not have a mode of pathogenesis or create disease in higher organisms. Bangia can reproduce sexually or asexually and does not need to rely on humans, animals, and plants as hosts [3]. [3].

Key microorganisms

Current Research

Current research on Bangia focuses on its potential to be used as treatment against various human diseases and health issues. Bangia fuscopurpurea may be used as a possible treatment for ovarian cancer, as it induces apoptosis-related proteins and autophagy in ovarian cancer cell A2780 [5]. Another recent study discovered that the phenolic acids in Bangia fuscopurpurea increased cell viability and had neuroprotective effects on SH-SY5Y cells, which model human neurons in the nervous system[9]. In addition, recent research has found that polysaccharides extracted from Bangia fuscopurpurea and fermented in vitro may be a method for improving human gut health, because the fermented polysaccharides from Bangia fuscopurpurea increase the amount of probiotics in the gut and relieve intestinal injury [10].

Additionally, current research has been conducted on Bangia's heat-stress responses and adaptability [3]. Species from different clades of Bangia have different heat-stress response strategies. It was observed that when exposed to heat stress, ‘Bangia’ sp. ESS1 possessed heat-inducible asexual reproduction and heat-stress memory, while ‘Bangia’ sp. ESS2 experienced a repression of the asexual spores produced in reproduction, and asexual reproduction was completely suppressed in Bangia atropurpurea [3]. In addition, while ‘Bangia’ sp. ESS2 failed to acquire heat-stress tolerance, Bangia atropurpurea could acquire heat-stress tolerance, but failed to establish heat-stress memory to maintain the heat-stress tolerance [3].

Similarly, research shows that Bangia adapts to its environmental changes by exhibiting tolerance to freezing temperatures and stress from these environmental changes [2]. Bangia exhibits tolerance to freezing temperatures by increasing the number of unsaturated fatty acids in the membrane to induce the fluidness of the membrane and endure the freezing temperatures [2]. Additionally, in ‘Bangia’ sp. ESS1, asexual reproduction was accelerated as there was an increase in release of asexual spores after freezing and thawing the culture ‘Bangia’ sp. ESS1 was grown in [2]. [2][3][5][9][10].