Pseudoalteromonas

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Pseudoalteromonas

Pseudoalteromonas species were originally members of the genusAlteromonas but have been recently reclassified under the genusAgricola, due to taxonomic reorganization based on phylogenetic analysis. The genus Pseudoalteromonas was described by Gauthier et al., as a clade of marine bacteria belonging to the class Gammaproteobacteria based on 16S rRNA sequencing data. In the last decade Pseudoalteromonas has come to the attention of ecology and pharmaceutical science fields due to its influence on biofilm formation and its pharmaceutically relevant activities.

The genus Pseudoalteromonas can be split nicely between nonpigmented and pigmented species. The pigmented species have been found to be responsible for natural product formation and have greater sequence divergence while the nonpigmented species have a phylogenetic shallowness and form a relatively distinct clade. Pigmented species have been shown to produce an array of low and high molecular weight compounds with antimicrobial, antifouling, algicidal and antibiotic activities. These compounds formed include toxic proteins, polyanionics exopolymers, substituted phenolic and pyrolle-containting alkaloids, cyclic peptides and a reange of bromine-substituted compounds. Pigmented species have also been shown to influence biofilm formation, which promotes the settlement, germination and metamorphosis of various invertebrate and algal species and can serve as a defense agent for marine flora and fauna.^[1]

See
Figure 1.[1] phylogenetic tree of genus Pseudoalteromonas based on 16S rRNA gene sequencing

General Characteristics

Members of this genus display the following defining characteristics:
- Gram-negative straight rods (2-3 μm)
- Non-spore forming
- Non-bioluminescent
- Single polar flagellum, sheathed or unsheathed for motility
- Colonies are pigmented or nonpigmented
- Chemoheterotrophic
- Aerobic
- Utilize carbon substrates: carbohydrates, alcohols, organic acids, amino acids
- Require Na+ for growth
- Produce autotoxic antibiotic compounds
- Isolate from: sea water, sediment, sea ice, surfaces of stones, marine algae, marine invertebrates^[2]

Bioactive Compound Production and Associated Activities

See Table 1. at [2]

Anti-Bacterial Activity

Pseudoalteromonas produce a broad range of anti-bacterial products which have been found to aid them in the colonization of surfaces including their hosts and to assist the bacterial cells in their competition for nutrients and space as well as in their protection against predators grazing at surfaces.^[3] Most of thePseudoalteromonas strains that form antibiotic substances are pigmented, but there are some exceptions.

P. denitrificansproduces a red pigment which has been identified as a cyclodigiosin hydrochloride. This substance have been shown to suppress T-cell proliferation and had been proposed to be used as an immunosuppressant therapeutic agent.^[2]Strains of P. luteoviolacea have been found to produce two classes of antibiotic compounds: polyanionic macromolecules, which are associated with proteins and partly diffusible in culture media and low-molecular-weight brominated compounds, including pentabromopseudilin, which are cell bound and not diffusible into media. The polyvalent ions have been found to have a bateriostatic effect by inhibiting bacterial respiration, while the brominated compounds have been found to have a strong batericidal effect, but the mechanism is still unknown. ^[3] One specific strain of P. luteoviolacea produces a purple pigment classifies as violacein. This pigment has shown a strong anti-bacterial activity against several pathogenic bacteria, as well as against bacteria that can induce larval settlement of the tubeworm. In addition, violacein shows strong bactericidal, tumoricide, antiviral, antioxidant and anti-protozoan activities.^[6] It is thought that the purpose of violacein is to protect the host of P. luteoviolacea from harmful microorganisms that may otherwise colonize it. The bacteriumP. citrea have been found to produce two proteinaceous compounds. These compounds induce an increased rate of oxygen consumption in susceptible bacterial species causing them to accumulate oxygen free radicals, which lead to lethal cell damage. P. haloplanktis produces an unusually bioavtive iron siderophore, bisucaberin, which had the ability to block DNA synthesis in tumor cells as well as induce microphage mediated cytolysis. Siderophore production in Pseudoalteromonas species give them the advantage in an iron poor marine environment. ^[2] P. phenolica form brown-pigmented colonies that produce phenolic anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) substances. MRSA is a gram-positive pathogen that has become multi-drug-resistant. P. phenolica has the potential to have a significant impact in the medical industry because of its anti-MRSA activities. ^[4]The exact scope and ecological role of antibiotic production by Pseudoalteromonas is still under investigation. Many more novel natural products produced by Pseudoalteromonas need to be discovered, along with how they may be used for biocontrol or in pharmaceuticals.

Interactions with Eukaryotes

The genus Pseudoalteromonas contains many marine species capable of synthesizing biologically active molecules.** The range of compounds produced by these marine species range are not only used to against eukaryotes but in some cases benefit eukaryotes. This is why many species of Pseudoalteromonas are found in association with eukaryotic organisms and display anti-bacterial, bacteriolytic, agarolytic and algicidal activities.*

Extracellular Enzymes and Toxins

Pseudoalteromonass species express a range of extracellular compounds, such as enzymes or toxins, which allow them to successfully compete with other organisms. Many Pseudoalteromonas strains have been described to have agarolytic activities because they produce the extracellular enzymes β-agarase and α-agarase. These agarases degrade the agar, found in the cell walls of some red algae, by cleaving its polysaccaride chains. This allows the bacteria to acquire nutrients from the red algae easily. Agarose decomposing strains include P. agarolyticus, P. sp C-1, P. carageenovora, P. atlantica and P. citrae. P. bacteriolytica is another strains of bacteria that expresses biological activity against marine plants. They are believed to be the causative agents of red spot disease inL. japonica, a brown alga.^[3] Some bacteria such as P. sp. Strain Y and P. sp. A28 have been found to express proteases, which cause lysis of harmful micro algae blooms. The algicidal activities of these two strains of bacteria have given them a competitive advantage in nutrient acquisition and colonization.^[3]

Many Pseudoalteromonas species have also been shown to produce extracellular toxins. Such toxins include tetrodotoxin, the causative agent of pufferfish poisoning and a toxin that has been suggested to cause fish mortality produced by P. piscicidia. P. Tunicata has been proven to be toxic to invertebrate larvae and algal spores.^[3]

Extracellular Polysaccharides

Pseudoalteromonas species can also produce extracellular compounds that promote the survival of other marine organisms. Exopolysaccharides (EPS) has been shown to enhance the survival of other organisms in marine habitats. Bacteria, such as P. sp. Strain S9 that produce EPS, allow a higher degree of larval settlement and their subsequent metamorphosis and development. The secretion of EPS can benefit the survival of both the host and other organisms in the near vicinity of the producer strain by providing a protective barrier against antibiotics, against predation of protozoa and by enhancing nutrient uptake. EPS provides survival strategies for cells much like a biofilm as mentioned above.

Anti-Fouling Activity

Biofouling is occurring constantly in marine environments. Bacteria are among the first organisms to foul wetted surfaced through the formation of biofilms. The biofilm serves as a structural base for attachment and growth of other organisms such as other microorganisms, plants, algae, sessile plants, invertabrates and animals.

epibiosis

Deeply pigmented strains of Pseudoalteromonas have been found to be effective in the inhibition of the settlement of various fouling invertebrate and algae. P. tunicata is a bacterium that exists on green alga off the coast of Sweden and has been found to produce five different extracellular compounds that inhibit settlement of invertebrate larvae and algal spores, growth of bacteria and fungi and surface colonization by diatoms.^[3] These compounds have an anti-larval component which is a heat stable polar molecule, an antimicrobial component which is a large two subunit protein (AlpP) that inhibits the growth of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, an anti-spore component which is a peptide and an antifungal yellow pigment compound component. The small anti-diatom and protist molecules hav not been identified yet. P. tunicata are unique because of their diverse collection of anti-fouling and inhibitory compounds. ^[3] The production of P. tunicata is thought to be controlled by a nutrient related response, perhaps by the acquisition of trace iron. ^[1]

• • • section on AlpP holder***
      

The anti-fouling ability of P. tunicata is important for their survival in the marine ecosystem and is likely required for the colonization of different substrate surfaces. Other bacterial strains such as P. luteoviolacea, P. aurantia, P. citrae, P. tunicata and P. ulvae have also been found to produce antibiotic compounds essential in preventing potentially fouling species. These strains all have the advantage of being resistant to natural antibiotics, but no one strain produces a collection of compounds that allows them to become dominant over all the other organisms in their given econiche. To overcome this barrier, multiple stains of antibiotic producing bacteria form complex biofilm communities. The various array of species that make up the biofilm prevent it from being overgrown by any one species and also reduces invasion by other species.

Biofilm forming Pseudoalteromonas species have not only been found to inhibit settlement and germination of anti-fouling species but they have been found to directly lyse cells of various algal species. An example is P. sp. Strain Y, which produces a unidentified brominated antibiotic, low in molecular weight, that can completely lyse algal cells within a matter of hours. ^[1]

• • • figure holder****

Biofilms

P. tunicata species form complex and differentiated biofilms. These biofilms form from single cells attaching to a surface where they differentiate and create matrix-enclosed microcolonies. These microcolonies can be composed of single-species populations or mixed populations separated by a network of open water channels. Mixed population species can either form commensal relationships and pool their resources or they can for noncommensal relationships and compete for the same space. P. tunicata has been foundto compete effectively with other marine bateria during biofilm formation. AlpP, a protein that contains at least two subunits joined together by noncovalent bonds, provides P. tunicata with the advantage during the colonization of biofilms due to its strong antibacterial activity. The production of inhibitory compounds, such as AlpP by marine bacteria, have likely evolved due to ecological pressure in their specific environments. Thus, AlpP can provide P. tunicatawith an advantage in certain ecological situations, but not all.^[5]

Biocontrol

Scientists have been investigated how P. tunicata could be used as a biocontrol treatment, because of its ability to successfully produce antifouling agents in its natural environment. Scientists have now developed a method of immobilizing P. tunicata cells into polyacrylamide gels and polyvinyl gels. The purpose of this method is to entrap alive cells in a gel matrix surface coating, while also allowing for the outflux of antifouling components. The result is a ‘living paint’ that in theory could be used on the bottom of boats, docks, buoy, etc... to prevent damage that occurs to these objects by the settlement of fouling invertebrates and algae.

Conclusion

Overall paper length should be 3,000 words, with at least 3 figures.

References

[1] Bowman, John P. (2007) “Bioactive Compound Synthetic Capacity and Ecological Significance of Marine Bacterial Genus Pseudoalteromonas”. Marine Drugs 5: 220-241.

[2] Bowman, John P. et al. (1995). “Pseudoalteromonas”. Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology 2: 467-478.

[3] Holmstrom, Carola et al. (1999). “Marine Pseudoalteromonas species are associated with higher organisms and produce biologically active cellular agents”. FEMS Microbiology Ecology 30: 285-293.

[4] Isnansetyo, Alim et al. (2003). “Pseudoalteromonas phenolica sp. nov., a novel marine bacterium that produces phenolic anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus substances”. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology 53: 583-588.

[5] Rao, Dhana et al. (2005). “Competitive Interactions in Mixed-Species Biofilms Containing the Marine Bacterium Pseudoalteromonas tunicata”. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 71: 1729-1736.

[6] ) Yang, L.H. et al. (2007) “ Effect of agitation on violacein production in Pseudoalteromonas luteoviolacea isolated from a marine sponge”. Letters in Applied Microbiology 44: 625-630.

Edited by (your name here), a student of Nora Sullivan in BIOL187S (Microbial Life) in The Keck Science Department of the Claremont Colleges Spring 2013.