Simian Immunodeficiency Virus – Research subjects for vaccine and drug development and models for the origin of HIV and AIDS

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Overview

Figure 1: Rhesus macaque monkey (Macaca mulatta). The first species that were found to harbor a simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVmac), which this species is likely to have acquired from sooty mangabeys (Cerocebus atys) in human’s captivity[1] [2]. Link image: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/458311699574399832/?autologin=true&nic_v1=1aHVhF8U1hKE5kWAieTuB0eqJtM3WP6RMUuzYEZCg0ykT0aO34yDNivz2yveYa%2B35S

Simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIV) are a group within the Lentiviridae genus of retrovirus family, (Retroviridae) whose genome is ribonucleic acid (RNA) but reverse transcribe to deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) intermediates before making viral proteins. This viral group is found naturally infecting more than 40 African monkeys (or Old World monkeys – Cercopithecidae family) and 2 species of great apes, namely chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and gorilla (Gorilla gorilla)[3]. SIV are the most closely related viruses to the human immunodeficiency viruses type 1 and 2 (HIV–1 and HIV–2), which cause acquire immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in human[4]. Despite being called “immunodeficiency viruses”, SIV do not usually result in any AIDS-like syndromes in many of their natural African monkey host communities, such as sooty mangabeys (Cercocebus atys) and Colobus monkeys (Colobinae subfamily) even with high viral counts in infected individuals and high prevalence of infection (up to 59% of a community can be infected)[2][5][6][7]. This suggests that SIV have a long history of coevolution with these natural hosts. However, there has evidence suggesting recent host jumps of SIV from their long-adapted hosts to new host species such as chimpanzees in the wilds, macaques in captives (an example of Asian monkeys who have much less exposure to SIV than the African ones) and humans, where they developed into new strands through combinations and mutations and became pathogenic in the new host [8][9][10][11]. In macaques and chimpanzees, (SAIDS) similar to AIDS in human[8][12]. Thus, researches into SIV, in both their natural reservoir and laboratory model primates, not only reveals the origin of HIV and AIDS, but also help further understandings in HIV’s pathology and developments of HIV and AIDS prevention and treatments.

Taxonomy

Figure 2: Phylogenetic tree of lentiviruses based on the pol gene[4]. Blue stars demonstrate the presence of putative G4 forming sequences in the genome that would form the secondary structure of nucleic acid called G-quadruplexes that has epigenetic regulatory functions. (Graphic links: http://www.freepik.com and http://www.flaticon.com/[13][14][15][16] [17][18]. Image link: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-02291-1/figures/3.

SIV are defined as lentiviruses (which itself belongs to the subfamily Orthoretrovirinae</o> in the Retroviridae virus family) that specifically infect non-human primates (simians). The Lentiviridae genus includes a wide variety of primate infecting viruses and a few other viral species that infect felines, cows, horses, goats, and sheep[19][6][20]. Infection of lentiviruses are characterized by long dormant periods (infection may never progress to disease phase as in the case of some natural host monkeys), progressive disease development, permanent damage of tissues, organs, or systems, and, in many cases, lethal outcomes[19]. SIV are a polyphyletic group in the primate lentivirus that also include HIV-1 and HIV-2 (Figure 2)[4]. The SIV species in chimpanzee (SIVcpz) is closely related to the HIV-1 groups M and N[21], while HIV-1 group O is more closely related to the SIV species in gorilla (SIVgor)[22]. And the SIV species that is naturally non-pathogenic in sooty mangabeys (SIVsm) has been shown to be ancestral to HIV-2 and SIV species that cause lethal SAIDS in Asian macaque monkey species[23]. A full phylogeny of SIV along with different types of HIV and other non-primate lentiviruses are demonstrated in Figure 2 (species relatedness was determined by the molecular clock gene pol)[4].

Section 2

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Section 3

Include some current research, with at least one figure showing data.

Section 4

Conclusion

References

  1. ↑ Murphey-Corb, Michael, Louis N. Martin, S. R. S. Rangan, Gary B. Baskin, Bobby J. Gormus, Robert H. Wolf, W. Abe Andes, Melanie West, and Ronald C. Montelaro. 1986. “Isolation of an HTLV-III-Related Retrovirus from Macaques with Simian AIDS and Its Possible Origin in Asymptomatic Mangabeys.” Nature 321(6068):435–37.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Sharp, Paul M., and Beatrice H. Hahn. 2010. “The Evolution of HIV-1 and the Origin of AIDS.”
  3. ↑ Sharp, Paul M., and Beatrice H. Hahn. 2011a. “Origins of HIV and the AIDS Pandemic.” Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 1(1):a006841.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Perrone, Rosalba, Enrico Lavezzo, Giorgio Palu, and Sara Richter. 2017. “Conserved Presence of G-Quadruplex Forming Sequences in the Long Terminal Repeat Promoter of Lentiviruses.” Scientific Reports 7.
  5. ↑ Santiago, Mario L., Friederike Range, Brandon F. Keele, Yingying Li, Elizabeth Bailes, Frederic Bibollet-Ruche, Cecile Fruteau, Ronald Noë, Martine Peeters, John F. Y. Brookfield, George M. Shaw, Paul M. Sharp, and Beatrice H. Hahn. 2005. “Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infection in Free-Ranging Sooty Mangabeys (Cercocebus Atys Atys) from the Taï Forest, Côte d’Ivoire: Implications for the Origin of Epidemic Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2.” Journal of Virology 79(19):12515–27.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Peeters, Martine, and Valerie Courgnaud. 2002. “Overview of Primate Lentiviruses and Their Evolution in Non-Human Primates in Africa.” HIV Sequence Compendium.
  7. ↑ Beer, Brigitte E., Elizabeth Bailes, Robert Goeken, George Dapolito, Cheik Coulibaly, Stephen G. Norley, Reinhard Kurth, Jean-Pierre Gautier, Annie Gautier-Hion, and Dominique Vallet. 1999. “Simian Immunodeficiency Virus (SIV) from Sun-Tailed Monkeys (Cercopithecus Solatus): Evidence for Host-Dependent Evolution of SIV within the C. LhoestiSuperspecies.” Journal of Virology 73(9):7734–44.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Keele, Brandon F., James Holland Jones, Karen A. Terio, Jacob D. Estes, Rebecca S. Rudicell, Michael L. Wilson, Yingying Li, Gerald H. Learn, T. Mark Beasley, Joann Schumacher-Stankey, Emily Wroblewski, Anna Mosser, Jane Raphael, Shadrack Kamenya, Elizabeth V Lonsdorf, Dominic A. Travis, Titus Mlengeya, Michael J. Kinsel, James G. Else, Guido Silvestri, Jane Goodall, Paul M. Sharp, George M. Shaw, Anne E. Pusey, and Beatrice H. Hahn. 2009. “Increased Mortality and AIDS-like Immunopathology in Wild Chimpanzees Infected with SIVcpz.” Nature 460(7254):515–19.
  9. ↑ Sharp, P. M., E. Bailes, F. Gao, B. E. Beer, V. M. Hirsch, and B. H. Hahn. 2000. “Origins and Evolution of AIDS Viruses: Estimating the Time-Scale.” Biochemical Society Transactions 28(2):275–82.
  10. ↑ Gardner, Murray B., and Paul A. Luciw. 1989. “Animal Models of AIDS.” The FASEB Journal 3(14):2593–2606.
  11. ↑ Barré-Sinoussi, Françoise. 1996. “HIV as the Cause of AIDS.” The Lancet 348(9019):31–35.
  12. ↑ Letvin, N. L., K. A. Eaton, W. R. Aldrich, P. K. Sehgal, B. J. Blake, S. F. Schlossman, N. W. King, and R. D. Hunt. 1983. “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in a Colony of Macaque Monkeys.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 80(9):2718–22.
  13. ↑ http://www.freepik.com/free-vector/business-team-outlines-pack_831669.htm#term=human
  14. ↑ http://www.flaticon.com/free-icon/monkey_47138
  15. ↑ http://www.freepik.com/free-vector/cat-silhouettes-set_718091.htm#term=cat
  16. ↑ http://www.flaticon.com/free-icon/horse-standing-black-shape_35907
  17. ↑ http://www.freepik.com/free-vector/cows-and-bull-silhouettes_788343.htm
  18. ↑ http://www.freepik.com/free-vector/pack-of-farm-animal-silhouettes_1058750.htm#term=sheep&page=1&position=29
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Shuljak, B. F. 2006. “Lentiviruses in Ungulates. I. General Features, History and Prevalence.” Bulgarian Journal of Veterinary Medicine 9(3):175–81.
  20. ↑ Pedersen, N. C., J. K. Yamamoto, T. Ishida, and H. Hansen. 1989. “Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.” Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 21(1):111–29.
  21. ↑ Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Keele2006
  22. ↑ Pedersen, N. C., J. K. Yamamoto, T. Ishida, and H. Hansen. 1989. “Feline Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.” Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology 21(1):111–29.
  23. ↑ Apetrei, Cristian, Amitinder Kaur, Nicholas W. Lerche, Michael Metzger, Ivona Pandrea, Johnny Hardcastle, Shelley Falkenstein, Rudolf Bohm, Jeffrey Koehler, Vicki Traina-Dorge, Tessa Williams, Silvija Staprans, Gail Plauche, Ronald S. Veazey, Harold McClure, Andrew A. Lackner, Bobby Gormus, David L. Robertson, and Preston A. Marx. 2005. “Molecular Epidemiology of Simian Immunodeficiency Virus SIVsm in U.S. Primate Centers Unravels the Origin of SIVmac and SIVstm.” Journal of Virology 79(14):8991.



Authored by [Minh Pham] for BIOL 238 Microbiology, taught by Joan Slonczewski, 2020, Kenyon College.

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