Shower Curtain: Difference between revisions
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Scientists performed a series of experiments by measuring the “microbial quality” of the water—which essentially measures the number of bacteria present in the sample. For the Rainwater System samples, scientists took seven samples from rainwater storage tanks and from the toilet bowl. The Graywater System samples were taken from four plants that UV-radiated the water for toilet flushing. The Waterworks samples were used as reference samples to compare the microbial differences between these other types of water systems. | Scientists performed a series of experiments by measuring the “microbial quality” of the water—which essentially measures the number of bacteria present in the sample. For the Rainwater System samples, scientists took seven samples from rainwater storage tanks and from the toilet bowl. The Graywater System samples were taken from four plants that UV-radiated the water for toilet flushing. The Waterworks samples were used as reference samples to compare the microbial differences between these other types of water systems. | ||
After the experiments were performed, the results showed that Rainwater Systems helped increase the amount of microbial activity in toilet water. Collectively in the Rainwater system samples, the following microbes were found: ''Aeromonas sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella non-pneumophila, Campylobacter jejuni, Mycobacterium avium'', and ''Cryptosporidium sp''. In comparison to the reference samples from the waterworks toilets, it showed that “the use of rainwater introduced new, potentially pathogenic microorganisms into the households” that were not present in the waterworks toilet water samples. The Graywater Systems showed only a larger number of E.Coli and Enterococcus [http://lequia.udg.es/lequianet/WatSciTech/04606/0311/046060311.pdf Albrechtsen 2002]. | After the experiments were performed, the results showed that Rainwater Systems helped increase the amount of microbial activity in toilet water. Collectively in the Rainwater system samples, the following microbes were found: ''Aeromonas sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella non-pneumophila, Campylobacter jejuni, Mycobacterium avium'', and ''Cryptosporidium sp''. In comparison to the reference samples from the waterworks toilets, it showed that “the use of rainwater introduced new, potentially pathogenic microorganisms into the households” that were not present in the waterworks toilet water samples. The Graywater Systems showed only a larger number of E.Coli and Enterococcus [http://lequia.udg.es/lequianet/WatSciTech/04606/0311/046060311.pdf (Albrechtsen 2002)]. | ||
Revision as of 01:38, 29 August 2008
Description of Niche
can we just cite things at the end, when the references section is organized.
cite in the text now, just put the last name and year. Then put full citation in the references section later if you want.
Location of Niche
(Ray)-i kind of started the intro a little bit only because some if it tied into my current research article summary--feel free to delete or do whatever with it(christy)
Biofilms thrive in moist environments, including in our own households. One household alone is home to billions of microbes. A shower curtain houses many microbes, fungi, and potentially pathogenic organisms as well. Both the water-facing side of the shower curtain and the back side of it contains many microbes, which may circulate throughout the entire bathroom.
Can we mention somewhere that the biofilm communities found on shower curtains are also found in environments with similar conditions, such as recirculating water systems, water pipelines, drinking water distribution systems, catheters, toilet bowls, pools, and hot tubs (even water filters). Also, maybe tie in by mentioning what these environments have in common? -Harn
Physical Conditions
A shower curtain will have a wide range of physical conditions depending on its location and usage. Typically, the temperature and pH will be highly variable- changing with every use of the shower as well as its location globally- while pressure remains relatively constant at near atmospheric pressure and moisture/humidity, although not constant, are relatively high. There is a wide range of organic and non-organic material that organisms must make use of or protect themselves from such as dead skin cells, soil, other organisms introduced, detergents, cleaning solutions, and possibly blood, urine, and feces. Thus, we see that the organisms that live in this niche have a unique metabolism that allow them to break down many materials and have several defense mechanisms to shield themselves from products that threaten them.
Influence by Sub-Niches and Adjacent Communities
Is your niche close to another niche or influenced by another community of organisms?
Sub-niches
The specific location on a shower curtain greatly influences the type of microbe that will form.
Vinyl/Nylon/Glass Door Shower Enclosures
- These biofilms feed off of Carbon sources such as: dead human skin cells, soap, other surfaces such as shampoo bottles, etc..
-Dry Shower Curtain Samples
-Bottom of Shower Curtain Samples
-Folds/Consistently Moist areas of shower curtains http://aem.asm.org/cgi/reprint/70/7/4187
Other
- Effects of Bacteria in Toilet
*** <<http://lequia.udg.es/lequianet/WatSciTech/04606/0311/046060311.pdf>>
- Sink
Conditions under which the environment changes
Do any of the physical conditions change? Are there chemicals, other organisms, nutrients, etc. that might change the community of your niche.
Shampoo: Shampoo is a hygienic product that is use on ones hair to remove dirt, oil, human particle and environmental debris. Shampoo producer enhance the products with vitamins and amino acids. As these products are used, it leaves trace amounts in the shower and on the shower curtain. These trace amounts of nutrients can be utilized by microbes.
Conditioner: pending (Harn)
Body Wash: pending (Harn)
Urine: As it turns out, if you can't hold the tinkle, and you urinate in the shower, you may be contributing to the populations of microbes that live on the shower curtain. Although urine typically has a lower pH than water- 5.0-8.0 versus 7.0 respectively (Bales 1984), urine contains many nutrients organisms can make use of. Human urine contains 6.2 mg of protein per every 100mL (Savory 1968) as well as small soluble DNA (Su 2004), giving microbes the substrates necessary for cell growth.
Microbes of the Shower Curtain Community
Many of the microbes present in shower curtains are opportunistic pathogens, and are therefore likely only to cause problems in immune-suppressed individuals. The most common and well-understood of these include methylobacterium, sphingomonas, mycobacterium, and serratia marcescens, though the first two are the most abundant[13].
| Species | Description |
| Methylobacterium | Methylobacteria are non-motile, gram- negative, slow growing organisms belonging to the α-group of proteobacteria. They can be found in fresh water supplies, soil, dirt, various plant surfaces, and even as part of the human foot microflora. The members of methylobacteria, which includes many strains, are generally low virulence opportunistic pathogens, a threat only to immunocompromised individuals. The strains most commonly isolated from clinical samples are Methylobacterium mesophilicum and Methylobacterium zatmanii (Rice 2000). Another study shows that methylobacteria are opportunistic pathogens of low virulence than can cause mild clinical symptoms, such as fever, which can be treated by antibiotics (Hornei 1999). Sometimes known as pink-pigmented facultative methylotrophs ('PPFM's), their pigmentation can also be yellow or orange and is thought to offer UV protection.
Methylobacteria are aerobes (they require oxygen to grow), and are unusual in that they are also facultative methylotrophs, or methane-oxidizing bacteria. Methylotrophs are able to grow by reducing carbon compounds that have one or more carbon atoms but no carbon-carbon bonds. Methylobacteria can metabolize methylamine, methanol, C2, C3, and C4 compounds, and even formaldehyde to use the resulting carbon as energy; this unique ability gives them an advantage in dense communities such as biofilm, where they are able to utilize nutrients that other bacteria are not. They are commonly found on the roots and leaves of plants, where they can metabolize the methanol emitted by the stomata of plants and are thought to produce a range of phytohormones, stimulating seed germination and plant development. As methylotrophs they are also found in habitats such as wetland rice fields, where methane is the end product of anaerobic degradation of organic matter (Eller and Frenzel 2001). There is no conclusive evidence, however, on whether these particular traits effect their participation in the biofilm community. It is also suggested that methylobacteria can nourish themselves by using products of other bacteria growing on humans, particularly on human feet. Certain bacteria, such as Brevibacterium linens, live on human feet and produce a variety of methylated sulfur compounds from the breakdown of amino acids, such as methanethiol from methionine, and other compounds common in dead skin cells. Methanethiol and dimethylsulphide are important intermediates in the biogeochemical sulphur cycle, and these products might also be used as substrates for the growth of methylotrophic bacteria like Methylobacterium podarium (Anesti 2004). Methylobacteria are often found in water purification and distribution systems, including water from dental units and blood bank purification units (Rice 2000). They can also be found automobile air-conditioning systems, printing paper machines, and other damp environments, and are common in tap water, as some strains exhibit resistance to chlorine. On shower curtains, they may contribute to the pink color of biofilm (Kelley 2004). |
| Sphingomonas | |
| Mycobacterium [19],[20] | Mycobacteria are commonly found in the bathroom environment as mycobacterium avium, subspecies hominis (MAH): part of a mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) that includes subspecies avium (MAA) and paratuberculosis (MAP). They can cause respiratory infections and also non-infectious respiratory problems when inhaled, but those found on shower curtains are mostly harmless to healthy individuals and are, instead, opportunistic pathogens that affect the immunosuppressed. Mycobacterium avium can also be found naturally in soils, plants, fish, drinking water and natural water, and as intracellular pathogens are also able to survive and grow in animal macrophages and phagocytic protozoa.
Mycobacterium are uniquely and extraordinarily resitant. They can tolerate the extreme temperature of ice machines and water heaters, and are more than a hundred times more resistant to chlorine than is e. coli. Additionally, their ability to survive phagocytosis and grow within phagocytes and amoebas protects them from conventional water purification regimens. The mycobacteria's lipid-rich cell wall confers significant hydrophobicity, and in wet environments this encourages their attachment to surfaces. In terms of a biofilm, mycobacterium are thought to be among the first to colonize because of this trait. |
| Serratia marcescens [21],[22] | Serratia marcescens is a motile, airborne, gram negative bacterium found naturally in soil, water, the subgingival biofilm of teeth, and sometimes in the intestines. In humans, it is a pathogen associated with a range of problems, including urinary tract infections, wound infections, conjunctivitis, keratitis, and meningitis. In bathrooms, it is commonly responsible for the red or pink slimy substance found on surfaces.
S. marcescens prefers damp environments, and can grow in temperatures ranging from 5 to 40°C and and pHs from 5 to 9; additionally, it will grow anywhere phosphorous-containing materials or fatty substances accumulate, i.e., soap residues in shower areas, feces in toilets, food residues in pet dishes. S. marcescens is notable for being able to perform casein-hydrolysis, which produces metalloproteases believed to function in extracellular matrix formation. Another distinction in its metabolism is the ability to break down tryptophan and citrate, and to convert the latter to a source of carbon. It is a facultative anaerobe and can produce lactic acid by oxidative or fermentative metabolism. Only in recent history has S. marcescens been recognized as a human pathogen, and several strains are antibiotic-resistant. While chlorine is known to help control S. marcescens populations, the most effective disinfectant is bleach. |
| Legionella | Legionella is a motile, gram negative aquatic bacterium found in creeks, streams, air conditioning systems, and other human water supply and distribution systems. In nature is flourishes as a parasite to eukaryotic cells and amoebae, and in humans it acts as an opportunistic pathogen, infecting immunocomprised individuals via inhaled aerosols. Legionella pneumophila is responsible for Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever.
Legionella can survive in temperatures below 20°C and up to 55°C, and can be eradicated by persistent treatment with chlorine or exposure to high temperatures. (Swanson, 2000) |
Additional Bacteria
A large number of other microbes have been found to live on shower curtains, including but not limited to: Afilpia felis, Moraxella osloensis, Actinomycetales, Nocardia, Gordonia (Kelley 2004), Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Escherichia coli (Barrett 2003). Where did Vibrio cholerae come from?
Shower Curtain Microbes (Non-Bacterial)
| Species | Description |
| Aspergillus niger | (Barrett 2003) |
| Phoma violacea | (Green 1972) |
Microbial Interactions with Their Environment and Community
(easier to put effect on environment and interactions with other microbes together, since it overlaps?) Describe any negative (competition) or positive (symbiosis) behavior Do they alter pH, attach to surfaces, secrete anything, etc. etc.
Microbes on shower curtains generally form biofilms, which allow participating bacteria to interact and cooperate in ways they normally would not. Bacteria in biofilm communities exhibit significant behavioral differences from their independent counterparts, and their cooperation results in greater resistance to environmental stressors. One prime example is the production of EPS (extracellular polymeric substance or exopolysaccharide) by cells in a biofilm; this sticky polysaccharide matrix holds the cells together, attaches them to surfaces, and facilitates biochemical communication between cells. Most importantly, the matrix offers the bacterial community within a great deal of protection against detergents and antibiotics, making biofilms very difficult to destroy completely. (WILL CITE LATER, DONT WORRY)
Some strains of methylobacterium have been shown to stimulate seed germination and plant development by production of chemical signals such as cytokinin zeatin, indole acetic acids, and auxins (phytohormones, or plant growth hormones). [7],[23],[24] In their natural environment, this gives rise to a mutually beneficial relationship between host and bacteria, but in shower curtains the effect is as yet unknown.
Methylobacteria are also known to fix nitrogen, and certain end products of their unique metabolism are thought to serve as regulators or signals in bacterial communities. For example methylobacterium extorquens AM1 produces several acyl-homoserine lactones, important regulatory molecules for many gram-negative bacteria. [25] Additionally, methylobacterium are known slime-producers, and contribute in large part to the production of EPS in biofilms; this is one reason for their abundance in the shower curtain biofilm community, and why they are considered among biofilm settlement "pioneers". (CITE) Methylobacterium capable of utilizing toxic halogenated methane derivatives as sources of carbon can also serve to protect their biosphere from those toxic pollutants.(Trotsensko and Doronina, 2003)
Mycobacteria are also considered biofilm pioneers, since due to their highly hydrophobic membranes they are generally among the first to colonize, attaching to surfaces and providing the groundwork for future biofilm growth. (CITE)
The fungus known to grow in the shower curtain has several methods to compete with other organisms. For example, Aspergillus niger is able to produce the antibiotics malformin and tensyuic acids (Curtis 1974 and Yoko 2007), as well and antifungal peptides (Gun 1999).
Sphingomonas pending-Ray
Microbial Metabolism
Do they ferment sugars to produce acid, break down large molecules, fix nitrogen, etc. etc.
Methylobacterium is a facultative methylotroph, which means it has the ability to grow by reducing carbon compounds that have one or more carbon atoms but no carbon-carbon bonds. It can grow on methylamine, methanol, C2, C3, and C4 compounds, including the methanol emitted by the stomata of plants, and even by metabolizing formaldehyde(Eller and Frenzel 2001).
The fungal species Phoma violacea is able to digest a variety of carbohydrates such as: glucose, mannose, galactose, sucrose, lactose, raffinose, xylose, rhamnose, mannitol, dextrin, starch; as well as a wide variety of fatty acids including: laurate, myristate, palmitate, stearate, linoleate, ricinoleate, "alkali-refined linseed oil"; and is vitamin-autotrophic (Eveleigh 1961). Thus, they are well adapted to changing conditions of the shower because they are able to metabolize a wide range of materials and create molecules that are essential to them.
Metabolism of A. niger pending-Mary
Metabolism of Sphingomonas pending-Ray
How to keep it clean
Antimicrobial Shower Curtain
Aegis™ Environments have developed antimicrobial materials that include shower curtains.(Aegis Environments, 2008) This “Microbe Shield Technology” kills microbes without the use of harmful chemicals that are conventionally used. The compound 3-Trimethoxy silyl propyl dimethyl octadecyl ammonium chloride is responsible for its antimicrobial properties. There are three parts to this compound. First, the silane base is the anchor for this antimicrobial compound. It is covalently bound to the surface by hydrolysis reactions which allow crosslinking and polymerization to other molecules. Second, the centrally positively charged nitrogen draws the microbes (cell membrane is negatively charged.) Third, the long molecular chain (18) is responsible for piercing the microbe. As the microbes are drawn to the positively charged nitrogen, they are pierced. Electrocution also occurs due to the interaction of the positive nitrogen and the negative cell wall.
Shower Cleaners
Shower cleaner are often to clean shower curtains. Shower curtain usually contain a nonionic surfactant, a chelating agent, and an alcohol.(Rouhi, 2001) Most showers’ active ingredients are: isopropyl alcohol; Antarox BL-225 (nonionic surfactant); and Hamp-ene diammonium EDTA (chelating agent.) The alcohol component is assist in dissolving the materials and fatty substances (soap and oily substances) in the water. The chelating agent sequesters ions and pulls them into solution. Finally, the nonionic surfactant breaks the surface tension of the water. This allows the water to glide down the curtain effortlessly. Thus removing the majority of possible nutrients the microbes could use. (Rouhi, 2001)
Bleach
Bleach is a sodium hypochlorite solution that is extremely efficient in eradicating microbes. It is a cheap and efficient disinfectant. Sodium hypochlorite enters the cell, interacts with the microbes components and compromises the cell. It exchanges atoms with other compounds, such as enzymes in bacteria and other cells. This results in cell death. For this reason, it’s a good sanitizer. Lenntech, 2008
Chlorinated Water
In the US, water is often treated with chlorine in order to disinfect and purify. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that will oxide the DNA of all living matter. This bleaching effect causes major protein damage resulting in the lost of function. Because of its toxic effect on harmful microbes, chlorine is used as a universal treatment for water sources. This means chlorinated water is used in showers, thus providing some disinfecting effect to the shower curtain. However its viability is about thirty minutes. Lenntech, 2008
Current Research
Molecular Analysis of Shower Curtain Biofilm Microbes
Scientists Scott T. Kelley, Ulrike Theisen, Largus T. Angenent, Allison St. Amand, and Norman R. Pace conducted experiments with regards to the type of microbe present on typical household shower curtains. Vinyl shower curtains are excellent homes to these microbes due to their varying areas on the shower curtain that the organisms have adapted to. Some areas are constantly moist, and some areas form “soap scum”, leaving a whitish, dry and flaky residue on a vinyl shower curtain. These scientists wanted to identify and analyze the presence of microbes and their toxicity, if any, on a household shower curtain.
Four different shower curtains were used to take samples from varying environments, that were at least six-months old, and frequently used. The first curtain contained samples from the bottom of the curtain (described as white-pink flakes), which was dry and also a sample from the “fold” of the shower curtain, which was moist and pink in color. The second curtain sample was from a dry shower curtain that had white flakes. The third curtain had a sample of pink flakes from the bottom area, and the fourth curtain had a sample from a constantly moist curtain which had pink-orange colored biofilm.
After taking these samples, the scientists held their environmental conditions under careful watch, and began conducting a series of experiments such as: Epifluorescence microscopy, DNA extraction, Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), Cloning and Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) Analysis, and finally sequencing. What they found was that there two main families of bacteria— Methylobacterium and Sphingomonas with many different species identified and others that were predicted to be evident as well. Most of these bacteria are not pathogenic, but some do have a history of infecting immune-suppressed individuals. In addition, they can feed off of carbon sources in the shower such as dead skin cells, soap, and other “bath area volatiles”. (Kelley 2004)
Microbiological Investigations of Rainwater and Graywater Collected for Toilet Flushing
The use of certain water systems tends to influence the presence of microbes and pathogens in household water usage. Scientists sought out three types of water systems: Rainwater System, Waterworks System, and Graywater System, and determined how these types of water systems impacted the number of microbial communities evident in toilets.
Scientists performed a series of experiments by measuring the “microbial quality” of the water—which essentially measures the number of bacteria present in the sample. For the Rainwater System samples, scientists took seven samples from rainwater storage tanks and from the toilet bowl. The Graywater System samples were taken from four plants that UV-radiated the water for toilet flushing. The Waterworks samples were used as reference samples to compare the microbial differences between these other types of water systems.
After the experiments were performed, the results showed that Rainwater Systems helped increase the amount of microbial activity in toilet water. Collectively in the Rainwater system samples, the following microbes were found: Aeromonas sp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Legionella non-pneumophila, Campylobacter jejuni, Mycobacterium avium, and Cryptosporidium sp. In comparison to the reference samples from the waterworks toilets, it showed that “the use of rainwater introduced new, potentially pathogenic microorganisms into the households” that were not present in the waterworks toilet water samples. The Graywater Systems showed only a larger number of E.Coli and Enterococcus (Albrechtsen 2002).
Hey, I found these while looking up other stuff: keep or discard at your discretion! :) -Harn
"http://technology.newscientist.com/article/dn11037-bacteria-harnessed-as-micro-propeller-motors.html" Sphingomonas used as miniature motors "In the future, such hybrid swimming micro-robots could even be used to deliver drugs inside the liquid environments of the human body, such as the urinary tract, eyeball cavity, ear and cerebrospinal fluid"
http://www.uwnews.org/article.asp?articleID=2030 Mapping Pseudomonas genome may help with cystic fibrosis "Scientists have completed mapping the genome of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the largest bacterium sequenced so far, which may lead to potential new treatments for patients with cystic fibrosis (CF), patients with severe burns and others who develop this type of infection. The findings are reported in the Aug. 31 issue of the British journal Nature."
Hi, I found this research about mehtylobacteria. Hope you like it. Feel free to edit it!! -Dela http://aem.asm.org/cgi/reprint/74/7/2218?maxtoshow=&HITS=10&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=methylobacteria&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT "This paper talked about a new method discovered to study Methylobacterium communities in different ecosystems. This is a rapid and specific cultivation-independent method using 16S rRNA gene-targeted primers specific for this genus. These primers were combined with a reverse primer that binds to the tRNA gene located upstream of the 23S rRNA gene in the 16S-23S intergenic spacer (IGS)in PCR. They found out tht the 16S-23S rRNA IGS sequence is more useful to diferentiate similar strains than the 16S rRNA. By using this method, they were able to generate fingerprints of the methylobacterium communities from phyllosphere samples. As a result, ther were able to compare these communitites on leaves of different plant species."
References
Anesti, Vasiliki, Jyotsna Vohra, Shalini Goonetilleka, Ian R. McDonald, Bettina Straubler, Erko Stackebrandt, Donovan P. Kelly, and Ann P. Wood. 2004. "Molecular detection and isolation of facultatively methylotrophic bacteria, including Methylobacterium podarium sp. nov., from the human foot microflora." Environmental Microbiology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
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Barrett Tony D. International Journal of Therapy and Rehabilitation, Vol. 10, Iss. 6, 01 Jun 2003, pp 281
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Eller, G. and P. Frenzel. 2001. “Changes in activity and community structure of methane oxidizing bacteria over the growth period of rice.” App. Environ. Microbiol. 67, 2395-2403.
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Savory, John, Pin H. Pu 1, and F. William Sunderman Jr. 1 "A Biuret Method for Determination of Protein in Normal Urine." Clinical Chemistry, Vol 14, 1160-1171, 1968
Su YH, Wang M, Brenner DE, Ng A, Melkonyan H, Umansky S, Syngal S, Block TM. Human urine contains small, 150 to 250 nucleotide-sized, soluble DNA derived from the circulation and may be useful in the detection of colorectal cancer. J Mol Diagn. 2004;6:101–7.
Yoko Hasegawa, Takashi Fukuda, Keiichi Hagimori, Hiroshi Tomoda and Satoshi Ōmura, “Tensyuic Acids, New Antibiotics Produced by Aspergillus niger FKI-2342”, Chem. Pharm. Bull., Vol. 55, 1338-1341 (2007).
Fordham von Reyn, C., Maslow, J.N., Barber, T.W., Falkinham, J.O., "Persistant colonisation of potable water as a source of Mycobacterium avium infection in AIDS", Lancet, Vol. 343, 1137-1141 (1994).
Falkinham JO 3rd, Iseman MD, de Haas P, van Soolingen D., "Mycobacterium avium in a shower linked to pulmonary disease.", J Water Health. 2008 Jun;6(2):209-13.
JD Cirillo, S Falkow, LS Tompkins and LE Bermudez , "Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence." Infect. Immun., Sep 1997, 3759-3767, Vol 65.
Serratia marcescens. http://www.serratia-marcescens.org/
René Verhoefa, Pieter de Waardb, Henk A. Scholsa, Matti Siika-ahoc and Alphons G. J. Voragen. "Methylobacterium sp. isolated from a Finnish paper machine produces highly pyruvated galactan exopolysaccharide." Carbohydrate Research, Volume 338, Issue 18, 1 September 2003, Pages 1851-1859.
Charles M. Maliti, Dominick V. Basile, and William A. Corpe. "Effects of Methylobacterium spp. strains on rice Oryza sativa L. callus induction, plantlet regeneration, and seedlings growth in vitro." The Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society, Volume 132, Issue 2 (April 2005), pp. 355–367.
C . Nieto Penalver , D . Morin , F . Cantet , O . Saurel , A . Milon , J . Vorholt. "Methylobacterium extorquens AM1 produces a novel type of acyl-homoserine lactone with a double unsaturated side chain under methylotrophic growth conditions." FEBS Letters , Volume 580 , Issue 2 , Pages 561 - 567.
edited by Mary De Unamuno, Christy Furukawa, Raymon Araniego, Harn Chiu, Coel Momita, and Delaram Rostami (students of Rachel Larsen)
